Module 27-28 Thinking and Language - Lecture Flashcards (Question & Answer)

A set of question-and-answer flashcards covering key concepts from the lecture notes on cognition, metacognition, concepts, problem solving, heuristics, intuition, creativity, and animal cognition.

What are cognition and metacognition, and what are the functions of concepts?

Cognition refers to mental activities such as thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating information. Metacognition is cognition about cognition—thinking about our own thinking. Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that simplify thinking.

How does metacognition affect academic performance?

Students who monitor and evaluate their own learning (metacognition) tend to perform better academically.

What is a prototype in concept formation, and how does it influence categorization?

A prototype is the mental image or best example of a category. Items that closely match the prototype are more quickly recognized and categorized.

How can prototypes affect memory and categorization of people, such as faces?

People tend to categorize faces toward a prototype (e.g., White vs Asian); memory can shift toward the prototype, making them recall faces as more like the prototype than they actually were.

What is a concept, and can you give an example?

A concept is a mental grouping of objects, events, ideas, or people. Example: the concept chair includes a baby high chair, a reclining chair, and a dentist’s chair.

What is an algorithm, and how does it differ from a heuristic?

An algorithm is a methodical, step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution but can be time-consuming. A heuristic is a simple, efficient rule-of-thumb that does not guarantee a solution and is more error-prone.

What is insight in problem solving?

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution, often accompanied by a sense of seeing the solution clearly.

Define fixation and mental set.

Fixation is the inability to view a problem from a new perspective, hindering problem solving. Mental set is the tendency to approach problems in a way that has worked before.

What is intuition, and how is it related to experience?

Intuition is fast, automatic, unreasoned thinking or feelings that are often based on prior experience and can be adaptive.

What are the representativeness and availability heuristics?

Representativeness heuristic judges likelihood by how well something matches a prototype, often ignoring base rates. Availability heuristic judges likelihood by how easily information comes to mind, often biased by vivid or recent examples.

What is framing, and why does it matter?

Framing is presenting an issue in a particular way that can significantly influence decisions and judgments; it can be used to nudge choices.

What is a nudge in decision making?

A subtle change in how options are presented or what defaults are set that guides people toward beneficial decisions without restricting choice.

What is overconfidence, and what is the planning fallacy?

Overconfidence is the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments. The planning fallacy is the tendency to underestimate how long tasks will take.

What is belief perseverance, and how can it be mitigated?

Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence. Considering opposite viewpoints can reduce bias.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to search for information that supports one’s preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

What is the two-track mind?

A dual-process view of thinking: fast, automatic intuition and slower, deliberate reasoning; both can influence judgments and decision making.

What is creativity, and what five components did Sternberg propose?

Creativity is the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. Sternberg’s five components are: expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and a creative environment.

What is convergent thinking vs. divergent thinking?

Convergent thinking seeks a single correct solution; divergent thinking expands possible solutions and is key to creativity.

How are incubation and defocused attention related to creativity?

Incubation involves taking time away from a problem to allow unconscious processing; defocused attention (mind wandering) can foster creative connections.

What role does intrinsic motivation play in creativity?

Intrinsic motivation is doing something for inherent interest and satisfaction rather than for external rewards, supporting creative work.

What makes a creative environment effective?

An environment that sparks, supports, and refines ideas; mentoring, collaboration, and reduced anxiety promote creativity.

How do animals demonstrate cognitive skills and culture?

Numerous species show concept formation, problem solving, self-awareness, tool use, and the transmission of cultural patterns across generations.

What evidence shows animal cognition and self-awareness?

Examples include apes and birds forming concepts, pigeons sorting objects, and mirror self-recognition in animals like elephants and dolphins; complex tool use and social behaviors also observed.

What brain region is associated with insight, and what is the typical pattern of brain activity during an Aha moment?

Insight is associated with bursts of activity in the right temporal lobe; prior to insight, the frontal lobes are active, then a sudden right temporal lobe activation occurs.

What is the SPLOYOCHYG puzzle's answer, and what is the common explanation?

Answer: PSYCHOLOGY. The puzzle demonstrates how wordplay can reveal a solution that ties to cognitive processes.

What does solving the matchstick problem illustrate about problem solving?

It demonstrates overcoming fixation and viewing problems from a new perspective to achieve insight-based solutions.

What factors contribute to fear of unlikely events, as discussed in the Fear Factor section?

Availability of vivid, dramatic imagery in the media, ancestral fears, and framing can inflate perceived risk of rare events.

What is the typical framing effect in risk decisions?

People tend to prefer clearly framed gains (e.g., '200 people will be saved') over equivalent losses (e.g., '400 people will die'), influencing choices.

What is the role of intrinsic motivation and deliberate practice in creativity?

Intrinsic motivation drives engagement and persistence in creative work, while deliberate practice and collaboration help develop expertise and refine ideas.

Beyond simplifying thinking, what is another primary function of concepts in cognition?

Concepts help us organize and interpret vast amounts of information, enabling us to make sense of the world, predict events, and guide our actions efficiently.

Give an example of how a student might use metacognition to improve their academic performance.

A student might pause while studying to ask themselves, 'Do I really understand this concept, or am I just memorizing words?' If they realize they don't understand, they might re-read the section, try to explain it in their own words, or seek additional resources (monitoring and evaluating their comprehension).

How are prototypes typically formed, and why can they sometimes be misleading?

Prototypes are often formed unconsciously by averaging the characteristics of category members we've encountered. They can be misleading because they might represent an idealized or common member, overlooking diverse or atypical examples within the category, leading to biases or stereotypes.

Explain how the 'memory shift toward a prototype' phenomenon can impact eyewitness testimony.

When recalling a person's face (e.g., from a lineup), an eyewitness's memory might unconsciously shift the recalled image toward a racial or social prototype they hold, making them remember the person as looking 'more like' the prototype than they actually did, potentially leading to misidentification.

What is the key advantage of using an algorithm over a heuristic, even if it is slower?

An algorithm guarantees a solution if one exists, making it reliable for critical problems where accuracy is paramount, whereas a heuristic offers speed but at the risk of error or failure to find a solution.

Describe an 'Aha! moment' of insight in a problem-solving scenario.

An 'Aha! moment' is a sudden, often unexpected, realization of a solution. For example, when trying to solve a riddle, you might struggle for a while, then suddenly the answer pops into your head with a feeling of clarity, often resulting from a new way of framing the problem.

How does 'mental set' specifically hinder new approaches to problem-solving?

Mental set hinders new approaches by causing us to persist with strategies that have worked in the past, even when those strategies are inappropriate or inefficient for the current problem, preventing us from considering alternative, potentially better, solutions.

In what situations might relying on intuition be highly advantageous, and when might it be risky?

Intuition can be highly advantageous in situations requiring quick decisions based on extensive experience (e.g., an expert doctor diagnosing a familiar condition). It can be risky in novel situations or when emotions are high, as it may be swayed by biases rather than logical reasoning.

How do the representativeness and availability heuristics contribute to irrational fears or prejudices?

Representativeness can lead to judging people based on stereotypes (prototypes) rather than actual statistics. Availability can inflate fear of rare, vivid events (like plane crashes) simply because they are easily recalled from media, leading to exaggerated perceptions of risk that don't reflect base rates.

Give a real-world example of how 'framing' influences public health decisions.

If a surgical procedure is 'framed' as having a '90% success rate,' people are more likely to approve it than if it's 'framed' as having a '10% failure rate,' even though the information is statistically identical. The positive framing emphasizes gains, while negative framing emphasizes losses.

Provide a specific example of a 'nudge' used to promote healthier eating choices.

In a cafeteria, placing healthier food options (like fruits and salads) at eye level and at the beginning of the serving line, while placing less healthy options (like desserts) further down or less prominently, is a nudge that encourages healthier choices without restricting freedom.

What are the practical consequences of the 'planning fallacy' in project management?

The planning fallacy often leads to missed deadlines, budget overruns, and increased stress in project management because individuals and teams consistently underestimate the time and resources required to complete tasks, failing to account for unforeseen obstacles.

Why is 'belief perseverance' so difficult to overcome, and how can actively seeking diverse perspectives help?

Belief perseverance is difficult because it's rooted in our desire for cognitive consistency and protection of our worldview. Actively seeking diverse perspectives forces us to confront alternative evidence and arguments, weakening the cognitive defenses that preserve our original beliefs and promoting more balanced judgment.

How does 'confirmation bias' contribute to political polarization and echo chambers?

Confirmation bias leads individuals to selectively seek out and interpret information that reaffirms their existing political beliefs, while ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence. This creates 'echo chambers' where people are only exposed to validating viewpoints, reinforcing their positions and making compromise or understanding across divides more difficult.

Explain how the 'two-track mind' operates when making a split-second decision in sports.

In sports, an athlete uses their fast, intuitive track (System 1) for automatic reactions based on years of practice (e.g., instinctively dodging a tackle or anticipating a pass). Simultaneously, they might use their slower, deliberate reasoning track (System 2) to analyze the opponent's strategy or consciously decide on a specific play, processing both streams of thought to make optimal decisions.

How do 'venturesome personality' and 'intrinsic motivation' complement each other in fostering creativity, according to Sternberg?

A venturesome personality involves a willingness to take risks, persevere through obstacles, and tolerate ambiguity, which is crucial for exploring new ideas. Intrinsic motivation drives this exploration from internal satisfaction, sustaining the effort required to turn venturesome ideas into creative realities, rather than being deterred by external pressures or failures.

Give an educational example of when 'convergent thinking' is appropriate and when 'divergent thinking' is needed.

Convergent thinking is appropriate when solving a math problem with a single correct answer (e.g., 2+2=?). Divergent thinking is needed in a brainstorming session to generate multiple ideas for a science fair project, where many potential solutions are explored without immediate judgment.

What is the underlying psychological principle behind the effectiveness of 'incubation' for creative problem-solving?

Incubation works because taking a break from a problem allows the mind to unconsciously process information, rearrange elements, and make new connections free from the cognitive fixations that might have stalled conscious efforts. It provides a 'fresh perspective' upon returning to the task.

Why is an environment that encourages 'mentoring and collaboration' considered effective for fostering creativity?

Mentoring provides guidance, feedback, and access to expertise, while collaboration allows diverse perspectives to merge, ideas to be critiqued constructively, and individuals to build upon each other’s contributions, collectively refining and expanding creative concepts faster and more effectively than working in isolation.

Describe an example of how animals demonstrate 'tool use' that indicates advanced cognitive abilities.

Chimpanzees often modify natural objects to create tools, such as stripping leaves off a branch to fashion a 'fishing stick' to extract termites from mounds or using stones to crack nuts. This shows not just simple use, but planning and modification of objects for a specific purpose.

How does the 'mirror self-recognition test' provide evidence of animal self-awareness, and what animals have passed it?

The mirror self-recognition test involves placing a mark on an animal and observing if it touches or investigates the mark in a mirror, indicating it recognizes the reflection as itself rather than another animal. Animals like great apes, dolphins, elephants, and some birds (e.g., magpies) have passed this test, suggesting a form of self-awareness.

Beyond media portrayal, what are some cognitive factors that contribute to irrational fears of unlikely events in everyday life?

Beyond vivid media, the availability heuristic (easily recalling dramatic examples), optimism bias (believing bad things won't happen to 'me'), and perceived control (fearing things out of our control more) can lead to irrational fears of unlikely events, such as dreading plane crashes more than car accidents.

How can understanding the 'framing effect in risk decisions' be applied in marketing or public policy to encourage desired behaviors?

In marketing, a product can be 'framed' by highlighting '95% fat-free' instead of '5% fat' to make it seem healthier. In public policy, promoting a vaccination campaign might emphasize 'saving X lives' (gain) rather than 'Avert Y deaths' (loss) to increase participation, by leveraging people's preference for avoiding losses over acquiring gains.

How does 'deliberate practice' differ from casual practice in developing creativity and expertise?

Deliberate practice is highly structured, focuses on specific areas for improvement, and involves consistent effort with immediate, analytical feedback. Unlike casual practice, it is often effortful and not inherently enjoyable, but it is crucial for building the foundational expertise necessary for truly novel and valuable creative contributions, as suggested by concepts like the '10,000-hour rule' (even if debated in its strictness).