STM 008_ General Biology - 2nd Quarter

central dogma

central dogma

.Proposed in 1958 by francis crick instructions in dna is converted into a functional product. Explains the flow of genetic information from Dna to rna. Suggest that dna contains the information needed to make the protein

gene expression

process by which the dna instructions are converted into functional product

transcription

where the information in the DNA of every cell is converted into small, portable RNA messages.

translation

where these messages travel from where the DNA is in the cell nucleus to the ribosome where they are read to make a specific protein

reverse transcription

the transfer of information from RNA to make new DNA, this occurs in the case of retroviruses, such as HIV.

recombinant dna

a DNA that has been created artificially. ● DNA from two or more sources is incorporated into a single recombinant molecule to produce new genetic combinations that are of value to science,

Recombinant DNA Technology

The technology used for producing artificial DNA

genetic engineering

combination of different genetic materials (DNA) from different sources

1968

when did the discovery of restriction enzymes happened

Werner Arber

discovery of restriction enzymes in 1968 is by a swiss microbiologist named

DNA Extraction

first step in recombination of DNA

○ DNA must be extracted from the desired organism.

Gene Cloning

Second step in recombination of DNA.

○ Scientist use this technique to separate the single gene of interest from the rest of the genes extracted and make thousands of copies of it.

Gene design

third step in recombination of DNA

○ Once gene is cloned, genetic engineers begin designing the gene to work once inside a different organism.

○ It is done in a test tube by cutting the part apart with enzymes and replacing that have been separated.

Transformation

fourth step in recombination of DNA

○ The new gene is inserted into some of the cells using various techniques:

■ Gene gun ■ Agrobacterium ■ Microfibers ■ Electroporation

four techniques in transformation

GENE GUN

AGROBACTERIUM

MICROFIBERS

ELECTROPORATION

Backcross breeding

final part in recombination of DNA

○ Transgenic plants are crossed with elite breeding lines using traditional plant breeding methods to combine the desired traits of elite parents and the transgene into a single line.

APPLICATION OF RECOMBINANT DNA

Food industry

pharmaceutical industry

medical research

food industry

Example for such is the variety of rice, golden rice, is genetically engineered with recombinant DNA to express enzymes that promote B- carotene biosynthesis.

pharmaceutical industry

example of such is the Recombinant human growth hormone that is used to support normal growth and development for patients with malfunctions in the pituitary gland.

medical research

Example is the antibody test that uses recombinant HIV protein to measure antibodies in the body that proliferate when there is a HIV infection.

evolution

process of change by which an organism has acquired their distinguishing characteristic

PIECES OF EVIDENCE TO PROVE EVOLUTION

fossils

anatomical Evidences

embryological evidences

biochemical evidence

fossils

relics or impressions of ancient organisms.

○ Are solid evidences that organisms from the past are not the same as those found today; they show a progression of evolution.

Anatomical evidences

is used to determine ancestry among organisms

3 types of anatomical evidences

Homologous Structure

Analogous Structure

Vestigial Structures

Homologous Structure

inherited from common ancestor. Similar in morphology yet different in function. Ex: Human hands and Cat’s limbs

analogous Structures

inherited from different ancestor but live in the same habitat. Anatomically dissimilar but similar functions

ex.bat and bird’s wing

embryological Evidences

Similarities in the development process.

○ Many animal embryos appear so similar that it was difficult to tell them apart

Biochemical Evidence

provides evidence to support the idea that if species have changed over time, then the genes that determine their characteristics should have also changed.

○ Similar in amino acids, DNA, etc.

JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARcK

a French naturalist who was born on August 1, 1744 in Picardy, France

. ● He is youngest among 11 children.

● Due to an injury he resigned from the

3 theories of lamarck

Theory of need

Theory of use and disuse

Theory of inheritance of acquires traits

Theory of need

proposed that organisms change because they need to.

Theory of use and disuse

○ Proposed that organisms could change the size or shape of organs by using them or not using them.

○ Parts that will be used will be strengthened and those that wont be used will deteriorate.

theory of inheritance of acquired traits

○ Changes happened during the lifetime of parents will be passed to the offspring.

Charles Darwin

● Born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, England.

● He is an English naturalist

● He published the Origin of Species.

● He was influenced by Thomas Malthus,

Darwins Theory of Darwinism

Overproduction

struggle for existence

variation

survival of the fittest

natural selection

new species are formed

Overproduction

○ Species have the ability to produce a large number of offsprings, much more than can survive.

struggle for existence

○ Results from competition among organisms for available necessities.

Variation

○ Are differences within populations that make every individual different from other individual.

survival of the fittest

○ Members of species that are best adapted to the environment survive.

○ These organisms survive longer and reproduce more successfully than those ones get eliminated.

Natural selection

the environment selects organisms that survive to be the parents of the succeeding generations.

new species are formed

favorable variations accumulate in an isolated population.

○ With every generation, new variations come out and are passed on the next generation.

HUGO MARIE DE VRIES

had come up with some similar data that could be put together with Mendel’s laws to create a more fully developed picture of genetics.

● In 1889, De Vries hypothesized that the characteristics were transmitted via some sort of particle that was given to the offspring by the parent.

● He relied on writings by Charles Darwin who hypothesized how traits were passed down from parents to offspring.

DE VRIES’ THEORY OF MUTATION

His theory explained that the species changed overtime most likely through changes, which he mutations, in genes.

● Mutation is the cause of changes in the plant as well as in other organisms.

● Mutation brings about the development of new species.

● Mutations can be the cause of evolutionary change.

● Organisms that exhibit these changes are known as mutants

MICROEVOLUTION

● Involves changes that occur within species in short periods of time as population go through natural selection

● Organisms with useful traits survive and those without use traits will die

4 fundamental forces of evolution

Natural Selection

Genetic drift

Mutation

Gene Flow

Natural selection

○ By Charles Dariwn

○ Is the preservation of a functional advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild.

○ Those who fit in the environment will survive, while those who don’t, will die.

Genetic Drift

○ Populations of organisms are constantly changing and adapting to their environment.

○ Drastic changes in the environment causes drastic changes to the gene pool of the population.

○ Is when chance events cause changes in frequencies of alleles in a population.

Mutation

○ Is a permanent alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism.

○ These changes can be caused by environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation from the sun, or can occur if a mistake is made as DNA copies itself during cell division.

Gene Flow

○ A.K.A Gene Migration

○ Is the transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another.