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Concurring opinion
Agreement with majority, offering additional reasoning.
Dissenting opinion
Disagreement with majority, presenting opposing views.
Judicial activism
Judicial rulings based on personal or political considerations.
Judicial restraint
Judicial rulings based on strict interpretation of law.
Judicial review
Court's authority to invalidate unconstitutional laws.
Jurisdiction
Court's authority; original hears cases first, appellate reviews.
Litigant
Party involved in a legal proceeding.
Litmus test
Standard used to determine ideological alignment.
Majority opinion
Official statement of the court's ruling.
Precedent
Previous court decision influencing future cases.
Senatorial courtesy
Senate tradition of consulting home state senators.
Stare decisis
Legal principle of adhering to precedent.
Writ of certiorari
Order by higher court to review lower court decision.
affirmative action
Policies favoring historically marginalized groups.
Bill of Rights
First ten amendments of the U.S. Constitution.
civil liberties
Individual rights protected from government infringement.
civil rights
Rights ensuring equal treatment under the law.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Legislation prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion.
Civil Rights movement
Social movement aimed at ending racial discrimination.
clear and present danger doctrine
Test to limit speech posing immediate threat.
compelling state interest
Government's justification for limiting individual rights.
cruel and unusual punishment
Prohibition against excessive or barbaric penalties.
de facto segregation
Segregation resulting from social conditions, not laws.
de jure segregation
Segregation enforced by law.
death penalty
Capital punishment for serious crimes.
defamation
False statements harming someone's reputation.
double jeopardy
Prohibition of being tried twice for same offense.
due process clause
Guarantee of fair legal proceedings.
eminent domain
Government's right to take private property for public use.
equal protection clause
Constitutional guarantee against discrimination.
establishment clause
Prohibition of government establishing a religion.
exclusionary rule
Evidence obtained illegally cannot be used in court.
free exercise clause
Protection of individuals' rights to practice religion.
grand jury
Group determining if there is enough evidence for trial.
grandfather clause
Exemption allowing certain individuals to bypass new laws.
hate speech
Speech inciting violence or prejudicial action against groups.
impartial jury
Unbiased jury ensuring fair trial.
indictment
Formal charge or accusation of a serious crime.
injunction
Court order requiring a party to do or refrain from doing something.
Jim Crow laws
State laws enforcing racial segregation in the South.
libel
Written defamation damaging someone's reputation.
majority-minority districting
Redistricting to ensure minority representation.
Miranda rule/warnings
Requirement to inform suspects of their rights.
National Organization for Women (NOW)
Advocacy group for women's rights and equality.
obscenity
Material violating community standards of decency.
USA PATRIOT Act of 2001
Law expanding government surveillance capabilities post-9/11.
poll tax
Fee required to vote, historically used to disenfranchise.
prior restraint
Government action preventing speech before it occurs.
Pro-choice movement
Advocacy for women's right to choose abortion.
Pro-life movement
Advocacy against abortion, promoting fetal rights.
public safety exception
Allows law enforcement to bypass Miranda warnings in emergencies.
racial classification
Categorizing individuals based on race for legal purposes.
racial gerrymandering
Manipulating district boundaries to dilute minority voting power.
right to privacy
Constitutional right protecting personal privacy from government intrusion.
search warrant
Legal document authorizing police to conduct a search.
secular
Non-religious; separation of church and state.
selective incorporation
Process of applying Bill of Rights to states.
separate but equal doctrine
Legal doctrine justifying racial segregation.
slander
Oral defamation damaging someone's reputation.
speedy and public trial
Right to a timely and open court proceeding.
strict scrutiny
Highest standard of judicial review for laws.
symbolic speech
Nonverbal communication expressing ideas or opinions.
time, place, and manner regulations
Rules governing when and where speech can occur.
Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972
Prohibits gender discrimination in federally funded education programs.
unreasonable search and seizure
Searches without warrants or probable cause are unconstitutional.
USA Freedom Act of 2015
Law aimed at reforming government surveillance practices.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Legislation prohibiting racial discrimination in voting.
Women's Rights movement
Social movement advocating for women's equality and rights.
