Canadian Crime Statistics, Policing History, and Strategies: UCR, CSI, and Community Policing

When are National Crime Statistics released?

Annually in Summer

What key issues do National Crime Statistics analyze?

They analyze crime occurrence, trends in crime rates, violent crime rates, and city crime rates.

What was the total number of Criminal Code incidents reported to police in 2017?

Over 1.95 million incidents

What percentage increase in reported crime was observed in 2017 compared to 2016?

1% increase, or 47,000 more incidents

What percentage of reported crimes in 2017 were violent crimes?

20%

What does the Crime Severity Index (CSI) measure?

The seriousness of crime, assigning higher weights to more serious offenses.

What was the change in the Crime Severity Index in 2017?

CSI increased by over 2%

What does the Police Reported Crime Rate (PRCR) measure?

The volume of crime with equal weighting for all offenses.

What demographic factors affect police reported crime rates?

Age structure of the population, with ages 15-24 at high risk and over 50 at low risk.

What social and economic factors can influence crime rates?

Shifts in inflation and financially motivated crimes like break and enter, robbery, and motor vehicle theft.

What is the Uniform Crime Reporting System (UCR)?

A system that began in 1961 to standardize definitions and classifications of crimes reported by police.

What was a significant change in the UCR system introduced in 1988?

The introduction of the Incident Based UCR Survey (UCR2), which collects incident-based data.

What are some criticisms of police-generated crime statistics?

They only include crimes known to police, often report only the most serious crimes, and may misrepresent crime rates.

What is the purpose of victimization surveys?

To estimate unrecorded crime, understand why victims do not report crimes, and assess the impact of crime.

What are some limitations of victimization surveys?

Underreporting by victims and response bias.

What was the first national study of victimization in Canada?

The Canadian Urban Victimization Survey (CUVS)

What does the General Social Survey (GSS) focus on?

It gathers data on crime victimization, risk factors, and public perceptions of crime.

What percentage of reported offenses in 2017 were property crimes?

61%

What is the most common type of property crime reported?

Theft under $5000

What percentage of all offenses in 2017 were classified as 'Other Criminal Code Offenses'?

19%

What types of offenses are included in 'Other Criminal Code Offenses'?

Counterfeiting, weapons offenses, child pornography, disturbing the peace, and administration of justice violations.

What is the focus of self-report surveys in crime statistics?

They ask individuals about their criminal involvement and attitudes towards crime.

What types of crimes are classified as violent crimes?

Homicide, sexual assault, assault, and forcible confinement.

What was the number of violent crime incidents reported in 2017?

403,201 incidents

What were the conditions of crime in mid-1700s London?

Crime was commonplace, and there was no organized law enforcement system, leading to reliance on the military.

Who was Henry Fielding and what was his contribution to policing?

Henry Fielding was the Chief Magistrate of Bow Street in 1748, who established professional law enforcement agents known as the Bow Street Runners.

What significant act did Sir Robert Peel pass in 1829?

The London Metropolitan Police Act, which established a 3,200 member police force with professional standards and uniforms.

What is the principle of 'Policing by Public Consent'?

It emphasizes the need for police to have public support, acting for citizens rather than over them.

What are the three levels of public police in Canada?

Municipal, Provincial, and Federal.

What was the purpose of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)?

To police and control land purchased from Hudson's Bay and provide security.

What was the historical significance of the 1970s for diversity in policing?

Pressure was placed on police organizations to eliminate barriers to employment for women and visible minority groups.

What does the Equality section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantee?

Full legal equality and fundamental rights, allowing for employment equity programs.

What trend was observed regarding the percentage of women in policing from the 1960s to 2017?

The percentage of women in policing gradually increased from below 1% in the 1960s to 21% in 2017.

What is the First Nations Policing Policy?

A government recognition of the importance of Indigenous police officers in First Nations communities, allowing for greater control over policing.

What are the five types of plural policing as identified by Loader (2000)?

Policing by government, policing through government, policing about government, policing beyond government, and policing below government.

What are the basic values of police culture according to Goff?

1. Police are the only real crime fighters; 2. No one else understands police work; 3. Loyalty to colleagues is paramount; 4. Bending rules is necessary to fight crime; 5. Public is unsupportive; 6. Masculinity is idealized; 7. Patrol work is undesirable.

What is the typical personality trait of police officers as described by Niederhoffer?

Cynical and pessimistic, with levels of cynicism increasing in the first 7-10 years of service.

What is the difference between preventative patrols and reactive patrols?

Preventative patrols are proactive measures taken to deter crime, while reactive patrols occur after a crime has taken place.

What are the primary activities of patrol officers?

1. Deterring crime; 2. Maintaining public order; 3. Responding to emergencies; 4. Identifying law violators; 5. Aiding individuals; 6. Facilitating traffic; 7. Creating community security; 8. Obtaining statements; 9. Arresting suspects.

What criticisms arose regarding reactive policing in the late 1960s?

There was a reassessment of operations, with response time being viewed as a weak measure of effectiveness.

What is the purpose of the Management of Demand/Differential Response in policing?

To categorize calls for service into emergency versus non-emergency to optimize police response.

What is reactive policing?

A policing style that focuses on responding to incidents after they occur, with criticism regarding its effectiveness and response time.

What is the purpose of the management of demand in policing?

To categorize calls into emergency and non-emergency, ensuring a standard policy across Canada.

What was the significance of foot patrol in policing history?

Foot patrol was the mainstay of policing in the 19th and early 20th centuries, reintroduced in the late 1970s due to citizen complaints about lack of contact.

What is directed patrol?

A policing strategy that involves orders on how to use patrol time effectively, often utilizing crime mapping systems to identify crime patterns.

What characterizes proactive policing?

A policing approach from the 1970s that emphasizes engaging in positive measures to control crime rather than just responding to incidents.

What is the hot spots patrol strategy?

A method that focuses patrol efforts on specific locations and times where crime is most likely to occur, based on crime analyses.

What are the four components of the Broken Windows Model?

1. Neighborhood disorder creates fear; 2. Neighborhoods send crime-promoting signals; 3. Serious criminals move in; 4. Police need citizen cooperation.

What is Problem Oriented Policing?

A policing strategy introduced by Herman Goldstein in 1979 that focuses on identifying and addressing the root causes of crime through a four-stage process known as SARA.

What does SARA stand for in Problem Oriented Policing?

Scanning, Analysis, Response, Assessment.

What are the three aims of community policing?

1. Community partnerships; 2. Organizational change; 3. Problem solving.

What is zero tolerance policing?

A strict form of reactive policing based on the Broken Windows approach, focusing on enforcing laws against minor violations.

What is predictive policing?

A strategy that uses information and advanced analysis to inform proactive crime prevention efforts.

What are key elements of predictive policing?

Integrated information and operations, big picture perspective, cutting-edge analysis and technology, linkage to performance, adaptability.

What legal requirements must police follow when making an arrest?

They must protect against wrongful arrest and unreasonable search/seizure, and can arrest with or without a warrant.

What does Section 8 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms protect?

It protects individuals against unreasonable search and seizure, ensuring a reasonable expectation of privacy.

What is the difference between search and seizure?

Search is the intrusion of a government representative into an individual's privacy, while seizure is the exercise of control over an individual or item.

What is the purpose of custodial interrogation?

To obtain incriminating evidence, locate stolen property or accomplices, and primarily to secure a confession from the suspect.

What is a conditioning strategy in interrogations?

An approach where police create a positive environment to encourage suspects to cooperate.

What is a de-emphasizing strategy in interrogations?

An approach that informs suspects that their rights are less important than empathizing with victims, often leading them to not contact a lawyer.

What is the persuasion strategy in interrogations?

An approach that informs suspects that only the victim's side will be heard during trial if they do not share their story.

What are voluntary confessions?

Confessions made by individuals who did not commit the crime, often to protect someone else or due to fear of the actual perpetrator.

What is a coerced-complaint false confession?

A confession that results from intense custodial interrogation where the individual agrees with police statements to end an uncomfortable situation.

What is a coerced internalized false confession?

A situation where an individual falsely recalls their involvement in a crime due to anxiety and emotional fatigue from interrogation.

What is a jailhouse informant?

An inmate who claims to have heard another prisoner make an admission about their case, often seeking leniency in their own sentencing.

What percentage of wrongful convictions in the US are estimated to involve jailhouse informants?

Approximately 20%.

What is the Vetrovec Warning?

A warning given to jurors about the risks of adopting the evidence of a witness without additional corroboration.

What constitutes police misconduct?

Activities by police officers that are inconsistent with their legal authority and ethical standards.

What are the three categories of police misconduct?

Occupational Deviancy, Abuse of Authority, and Selective Enforcement of Laws.

What is occupational deviancy in police misconduct?

Criminal and non-criminal behavior committed during normal work activities or under the guise of police authority.

What is selective enforcement of laws?

Misconduct that reflects and reinforces biases related to race, class, and gender in law enforcement.

What are the three types of problem police officers categorized by police departments?

Rotten Apples, Pervasive but Unorganized Misconduct, and Pervasive and Organized Misconduct.

What is the significance of the Judicial Interim Release (bail) hearing?

It is considered the most important step for an accused person in the criminal process.

What did the Bail Reform Act of 1972 establish?

A system of interim release for suspects, emphasizing release into the community pending trial.

What is the Ladder Approach in bail hearings?

A requirement for the prosecutor to justify greater restrictions on the accused.

What is legal aid?

A government-supported system providing free legal services to individuals earning below a certain amount.

What is the purpose of Section 10(b) of the Charter?

To ensure the right to retain counsel without delay.

What are the three models of legal aid?

Judicare, Public Defender (Staff System), and Mixed or Combined Approach.

What is the Judicare model of legal aid?

A system where qualified recipients receive a certificate to choose their own lawyer.

What is the Staff System (Public Defender Model) of legal aid?

A system where lawyers are employed by the provincial government to provide legal representation.

What is the Mixed System of legal aid?

A model where recipients can choose from a panel of staff or private lawyers.

What is the prosecutorial screening process?

The process where a prosecutor decides whether to proceed with a case after police lay charges.

What discretion do crown prosecutors have in the screening process?

They have the discretion to decide when to charge, what to charge, and whether to reduce or drop charges.

What is the impact of police misconduct on the justice system?

It threatens the principle of a fair trial and the administration of justice.

What is the role of bail conditions?

To ensure the accused reports to a police officer and adheres to specific requirements until trial.

What is the potential benefit for jailhouse informants?

They may receive more lenient sentencing in exchange for their testimony.

What are some examples of occupational deviancy?

Sleeping on duty and misuse of firearms.

What are the main decisions a prosecutor can make during the screening process?

The prosecutor can decide to try the case in court, engage in plea bargaining, stay proceedings, or dismiss charges.

What is the most important factor in the prosecutor's screening process?

Sufficient evidence.

What does the Transfer Model in prosecutorial discretion emphasize?

Little screening and charging most cases, primarily based on available resources.

What is the focus of the Legal Sufficiency Model?

Cases are screened based on sufficient legal grounds.

What is plea bargaining?

An agreement by the accused to plead guilty in exchange for some benefit.

What are some advantages of plea bargaining?

Increases efficiency of the criminal justice system, decreases operating costs, reduces prosecutorial workload, and may lessen trauma for victims.

What are some criticisms of plea bargaining?

It can be seen as unfair, may undermine the integrity of the criminal justice system, and can compel innocent individuals to plead guilty.

What is charge bargaining?

Involves the reduction of charges, dropping certain charges, or promising not to proceed on other possible charges.

What is sentence bargaining?

Involves arrangements regarding the type of trial (summary vs. indictment) or promises not to appeal against a sentence.

What role does the jury play in a trial?

The jury decides the facts based on trial evidence and applies the law provided by the judge to render a verdict.

What does Section 11(f) of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantee?

The right to a jury trial in serious offenses with a maximum punishment of five years or more.

What are the four steps in the jury selection process?

1. Assemble a source list of potential jurors. 2. Determine qualifications of those on the list. 3. Select the jury panel. 4. Conduct in-court selection.

What is the purpose of challenges in jury selection?

To eliminate unqualified or not impartial jurors.