religion, ethnicity and minorities theme 4

Sunni-Shia divide

Originated from a dispute over who should succeed Muhammad as leader of Islam: Sunnis favored election by tradition, Shias supported Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali.

Duration of Sunni-Shia schism

14 centuries.

Leaders of Sunni and Shia Islam

Saudi Arabia (Sunni) and Iran (Shia).

Domestic conflicts influenced by Sunni-Shia rivalry

Lebanese conflict (Sunni leadership vs Shia masses), Syrian Civil War, Iraqi conflict (Shia majority vs Sunni minority).

Impact of Sunni-Shia split on US foreign policy

It influences decisions and alliances in the Middle East.

Global Sunni-Shia population split

About 85% Sunni and 15% Shia.

Festival of Ashura views

Shias mourn the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn; Sunnis fast to commemorate Noah's Ark and Moses' salvation.

Coexistence between Sunnis and Shias

Yes, they often intermarry and share mosques and religious facilities.

Shared religious texts of Sunnis and Shias

The Qur'an and belief in the Prophet Muhammad.

Sunni-Shia split in Turkey

85-90% Sunni, 10-15% Shia.

Sunni-Shia split in Syria

74% Sunni, 13% Shia (plus 13% Christianity and Druze).

Sunni-Shia split in Lebanon

Muslims are 67.8% of the population: 31.9% Sunni and 31.2% Shia.

Sunni-Shia split in Palestine

85% Sunni, 15% Shia.

Sunni-Shia split in Egypt

99% Sunni, 1% Shia.

Sunni-Shia split in Jordan

97% Sunni, 3% Shia.

Sunni-Shia split in Iraq

35-40% Sunni, 60% Shia.

Sunni-Shia split in Saudi Arabia

85-90% Sunni, 10-12% Shia.

Shia-Sunni split in Iran

90-95% Shia, 5-10% Sunni.

Modern meaning of Sunni and Shia

Today, Sunni and Shia identities are broader cultural and political identities beyond purely theological disagreements.

Founding of the Muslim Brotherhood

Founded in 1928 during disillusionment with the Egyptian government and lingering British interference.

Core message of the Muslim Brotherhood at its founding

Called for renewed faith in Islam instead of 'empty' political parties and European-inspired reforms.

Socioeconomic group appealed to by the Brotherhood

The proletariat, especially those without trade union representation.

Brotherhood's combination of social welfare and religion

It offered social services alongside traditional Muslim teaching.

Brotherhood's view on political systems

Muslims should resist any system where 'men are in servitude to other men,' as it violated God's sovereignty; they envisioned a system where no rulers were needed because Muslims would naturally obey divine law.

Nasser's view on Islam in politics

Nasser believed Islam should be separate from politics and was not a blueprint for running a state.

Nasser's fear of the Muslim Brotherhood

He saw them as a political alternative with mass appeal, given the predominantly Muslim population.

Banning of the Brotherhood under Nasser

1953

Major event involving the Brotherhood in 1954

A failed assassination attempt on Nasser.

Nasser's response to the 1954 assassination attempt

He used it to justify a crackdown, arresting thousands of Brotherhood members and hanging six of them.

Brotherhood after the crackdown

It was driven underground but retained a large support base.

Sayyid Qutb's significance

A Brotherhood member imprisoned by Nasser; while in prison, he developed the doctrine of armed struggle, laying the intellectual foundations for militant Sunni Islamist groups like al-Qaeda and Hamas.

Core principle of the Muslim Brotherhood

To create a state governed by Islamic law (theocratic rule).

Brotherhood's prominence

Through the provision of social services like schools and hospitals.

Sadat's relationship with the Brotherhood

Sadat forged a closer alliance with the Brotherhood to gain support against Nasser loyalists and leftists.

Sadat's fate in relation to Islamist extremists

He was assassinated by Islamist extremists in 1981.

Brotherhood-affiliated candidates in elections

1984

Result of the Brotherhood-Wafd alliance in 1984 elections

They won 65 out of 450 seats.

Brotherhood candidates in the 2000s

Running as independents, they won even more seats, becoming the largest opposition bloc.

Demographic comparison of Iran and Iraq

Iran is three times bigger in land area and population than Iraq; it is Persian (not Arab) and Shia (not Sunni).

Ruler of Iran in the early 20th century

The Shah (monarch).

Colonel Reza Khan's rise to power

In 1921, Reza Khan seized control of Iran as Prime Minister and proclaimed himself Shah in 1925.

Key reforms of Reza Khan

Ruthless modernization and westernization: reorganized education, forced European dress codes, abolished the veil for women, expanded infrastructure, established textile and steel industries.

Significance of the oil industry under Reza Khan

It exploded — Iran became the 4th largest oil producer.

Reza Khan's achievement in 1933 regarding oil profits

He forced the British to grant Iran a greater share of oil profits.

Iran during World War II

It was invaded by the USSR and the UK; Reza Khan abdicated in favor of his son, Muhammad Reza Shah.

Mohammed Mosaddeq

A leading Iranian nationalist who argued that Iran's oil resources belonged to its people.

Mosaddeq's major action in 1951

Nationalized the Iranian oil industry.

Reaction of Britain and the West to Mosaddeq's nationalization

The British withdrew their workforce and pressured the USA to overthrow Mosaddeq.

1953 Mosaddeq Coup

The Shah, under British and US pressure, fired Mosaddeq; Mosaddeq was imprisoned, and the Iranian parliament was shut down.

Iran's pivot to becoming a key Western ally after 1953

Iran resumed oil production with Western involvement and joined the Baghdad Pact, becoming an anti-Soviet ally.

The "White Revolution" initiated by the Shah

A series of reforms starting in the early 1960s: land redistribution, female suffrage, and expanded education.

Success of the Shah's modernization program

Literacy rates doubled within 15 years, but wealth inequality persisted, and benefits were limited to elites.

Causes of opposition to the Shah

Wealth inequality, dependence on the West, dilution of Islamic traditions, and resentment toward brutal secret police.

Main leader of religious opposition to the Shah

Ayatollah Khomeini.

Khomeini in the 1960s

He was forced into exile in Turkey, Iraq, and Paris.

Khomeini's influence while in exile

His speeches and writings were smuggled into Iran.

Major event in September 1978 in Iran

Troops killed over 500 protesters during a massive demonstration.

Impact of the 1978 strikes on Iran's oil industry

The strikes brought oil production to a halt.

Military's attitude change by December 1978

Soldiers aligned with Khomeini refused to fire on protesters.

January 1979 event

The Shah fled Iran and never returned.

Khomeini's famous phrase upon victory

"Islam is politics, or it is nothing."

Khomeini's establishment of an Islamic Republic

The monarchy was abolished, Khomeini's Islamic Republic Party took over government, and Islamic (Qur'an-based) law was enforced.

Khomeini's influence on education

Purged un-Islamic influences from education, forced women to cover up, banned alcohol, pop music, and Western films.

Khomeini's use of terror

He conducted mass trials and executions of former Shah supporters.

Khomeini's foreign policy stance

"Neither East nor West, but an Islamic government."

Tehran US Embassy storming trigger

Jimmy Carter allowing the Shah into the USA for medical treatment in November 1979.

Tehran Embassy crisis outcome

Iranian students took 50 American hostages.

Impact of the embassy hostage crisis

It was hugely popular across the Muslim world and deepened hostility with the USA.

Khomeini's target in foreign policy

Iraq had a secular government and an oppressed Shiite majority; Khomeini called for Iraqis to overthrow the 'corrupt' regime.

Hezbollah

A Shiite Muslim political party and militant group in Lebanon, known as a 'state within a state.'

Founding of Hezbollah

During the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), as a response to the Israeli invasion and Palestinian militancy in Lebanon.

Countries supporting Hezbollah

Iran and Syria (especially through the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, IRGC).

Political power division in Lebanon (1943 agreement)

The Sunni Muslims controlled the PM position, Maronite Christians controlled the Presidency, and Shiite Muslims controlled the Speakership of Parliament.

Trigger of the 1975 Lebanese Civil War

Sectarian tensions, growth of the Sunni population, Shiite marginalization, and increased Palestinian militant presence.

Hezbollah's first major violent act

The 1983 bombing of US and French troops in Beirut, killing around 300.

Hezbollah's four core beliefs (1985 manifesto)

1) Expel Western influence from Lebanon 2) Destroy the Israeli state 3) Maintain alliance with Iran 4) Achieve Lebanese self-determination.

Hassan Nasrallah

Leader of Hezbollah from the early 1980s until his assassination in 2024, pivotal in transforming it into an effective non-state fighting force.

Bruce Hoffman on Nasrallah's impact

Nasrallah enmeshed Israel in a costly war leading to the 2000 Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon.

Nasrallah's reorganization of Hezbollah

He created a Shura Council with five sub-councils: political, jihad, parliamentary, executive, and judicial assemblies.

Hezbollah's official entry into Lebanese politics

1992, winning eight seats in Parliament.

Hezbollah's first Cabinet positions

2005

Hezbollah's political evolution after 2009

Became more integrated into mainstream Lebanese politics, with a renewed manifesto calling for 'true democracy.'

Hezbollah's services in controlled areas

Infrastructure, healthcare, education, and youth programs.

Hezbollah's arms status post-Civil War

Under the 1989 Taif Agreement, Hezbollah was the only militia not required to disband.

Hezbollah's armament level

It is considered the most heavily armed non-state actor, with an arsenal greater than some nations.

Hezbollah's relationship with Iran

Iran provides the majority of Hezbollah's funding, training, and weapons.

Hezbollah's role in Syria

It has links and military cooperation with the Assad regime.

UNIFIL

The UN Interim Force in Lebanon, criticized as ineffective in curbing Hezbollah's power.

Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF)

Lebanon's official army, spread across religious sects but limited in capacity; supported by $3 billion of US aid since 2006.

Hezbollah's view on Israel

Total opposition, committed to Israel's destruction as reiterated in their 2009 manifesto.

Major terrorist attacks linked to Hezbollah

1994 bombing of a Jewish Community Centre in Argentina, bombing of Israeli embassy in London.

1994 bombing of a Jewish Community Centre

A terrorist attack in Argentina.

Hezbollah

Largely designated as a global terrorist organization (e.g., US designation in 1997).

Hamas

An Islamist militant group originating from the Palestinian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood.

Hamas power in Gaza

Came to power in 2006, after defeating Fatah in elections.

Hamas's main objectives

Destruction of Israel and establishment of a Palestinian state.

Countries supporting Hamas

Iran (most significantly), Turkey (political support), and Qatar (limited administrative support).

Hamas's regional network

Part of Iran's 'axis of resistance,' including Hezbollah, Houthis, Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and other militias.

Hamas vs Fatah

Hamas is more violent and direct, while Fatah formally renounced violence.

Yahya Sinwar

Responsible for the 1988 massacre — largest number of Jewish deaths since the Holocaust.