Blood & Heart

What are the blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen to body tissues?​

Erythrocytes

functions of blood

Transporting nutrients, stabilizing the pH, initiating blood clotting, and regulating body temperature

The circulatory system consists of

heart, blood vessels, and blood

The cardiovascular system consists of only

the heart and blood vessels

Transportation

Blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, heat, and metabolic wastes.​​

Regulation

Components of this system regulate homeostasis of all body fluids (managing the volume and distribution), maintain the pH, and help regulate body temperature and metabolic heat.​

Protection

The circulatory system plays several roles in inflammation to limit the spread of infection, contains cells and proteins that destroy pathogens or remove tissue debris, and initiates blood clotting to minimize blood loss and maintain blood vessel structure.

The matrix component of blood is known as

plasma

What is the term for the value representing the percentage of RBCs in the total blood volume?

Hematocrit

hyperalbuminemia

Excessive albumin concentration.Results in thicker blood that moves sluggishly. Dehydration or any condition that leads to excessive water loss ​could cause it

hypoalbuminemia

A deficiency in plasma albumin concentration. Leads to thinner blood that flows too easily.​ Kidney failure, liver failure, severe burns, dietary protein deficiency, could cause it

Which component of blood would you need to determine if a patient had a sodium imbalance?​

Plasma (contains a variety of solutes including electrolytes such as sodium, chloride, calcium, potassium, and others.)

Which plasma protein has the greatest influence on blood pressure and blood volume?​

Albumin (contributes to blood viscosity and osmolarity the greatest. The concentration of this protein directly affects how quickly blood flows through vessels and how much water enters the bloodstream, impacting blood pressure and blood volume.)

hematopoiesis

The process of producing blood, especially its formed elements

hematopoietic tissues

The tissues that produce new blood cells are called

What is the primary hematopoietic tissue responsible for producing blood cells after birth?

Red bone marrow

Erythropoiesis

This is the process of producing red blood cells.

Leukopoiesis

is the production of white blood cells.

Thrombopoiesis

refers to the production of thrombocytes, also known as platelets.

The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) that regulates the production of erythrocytes is mainly produced where?

Kidneys

The three main plasma proteins are

albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen.

What does blood protein concentration ​do as a result of liver failure?

It decreases, and water accumulates in tissue spaces

What is removed from plasma to create blood serum?​

Clotting proteins (fibrinogen)

Nurse is reviewing the components of blood with a client who is scheduled for a blood test. The client asks about the order in which blood components settle after centrifugation. How should the nurse respond?​

"Red blood cells settle at the bottom because they are the densest, followed by the buffy coat and then plasma."​

all sites of hematopoiesis in an adult.​

the ends of long bones, the skull, pelvis, sternum, ribs, and vertebrae.

Which components are found in the buffy coat of blood?​

leukocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets).

Myeloid stem cells are hematopoietic stem cells that mature into

platelets, red blood cells (RBCs), and all white blood cells (WBCs) except for lymphocytes.​

A patient has been diagnosed with severe burns, leading to hypoalbuminemia. What dietary recommendations should the nurse provide to support the patient's recovery?​

encourage a high-protein diet as the patient has a deficiency. Proteins will help with wound healing and repair.

Which plasma protein is responsible for forming the framework of a blood clot during hemostasis?

Fibrinogen is a soluble plasma protein that serves as the precursor to fibrin. During the clotting cascade, fibrinogen is converted into fibrin, which forms the sticky framework for a blood clot.​

Which formed elements do not contain a nucleus or any organelles?​

Erythrocytes

What is the main function of leukocytes?​

Defend against pathogens​

Platelets play a key role in which process?​

Hemostasis

Jaundice​

Jaundice is a yellowing cast in the skin and whites of the eyes due to high levels of bilirubin in the blood. This may be a sign of rapid hemolysis or liver disease that interferes with bilirubin disposal.

What is the average lifespan of erythrocytes in the bloodstream?​

120 days

Antigens

genetically unique molecules that occur on the surface of all cells. They enable our body to distinguish its own cells (self) from foreign materials (non-self).

Antibodies

proteins that are secreted as part of a specific immune response whenever a foreign antigen is detected. Antibodies will bind to the antigens and mark them for destruction.

Which type of leukocyte releases heparin?

Basophils help promote inflammation by secreting the chemicals heparin and histamine. Histamine induces vasodilation, and heparin helps prevent unnecessary clotting so that other blood cells can travel easily through blood.​

What is the main function of eosinophils in the body?

fight against parasitic infections by secreting chemicals that destroy the worms.

Leukopenia

a condition in which the total white blood cell (WBC) count is below the normal range of 5,000-10,000 cells/m. Causes include lead, arsenic, and mercury poisoning, radiation sickness, and viral infections like mumps, measles, chickenpox, typhoid fever, and AIDS. Immunosuppressive drugs can also lead to a decreased count.

Leukocytosis

a condition in which the total count is above the normal range (between 10,000-11,000 cells/m). This usually indicates infection, allergy, or other diseases. Emotional disturbances or dehydration can also contribute.

Leukemia

a cancer of the hematopoietic tissues that produces a very high number of leukocytes (above 11,000 cells/m).

Which formed elements come from megakaryocytes?​

Thrombocytes, or platelets, are cell fragments that come from large cells

Which plasma protein is converted into sticky fibrin during the coagulation process?

Fibrinogen is a soluble plasma protein that helps with blood clotting. This protein is converted into fibrin by enzyme thrombin, which forms a sticky substance that platelets bind to when forming a blood clot.

Hemophilia

a genetic disorder characterized by the absence of one or more clotting factors in the blood. This is a sex-linked recessive disorder, which means it can only be inherited from the mother and predominately affects males.

Thrombosis

An abnormal clotting in an unbroken vessel is known as a thrombus. The thrombus can grow large enough to obstruct a smaller vessel. If this clot breaks loose and now travels in the bloodstream, it is known as an embolus. These can be very dangerous if they travel and block vessels to the heart, brain, kidney, or lung.

Erythroblastosis fetalis may occur when Rh-negative mother has a second child who is

Rh-positive.

When an erythrocyte ruptures, what pigment is initially formed from the heme group?

biliverdin

Which blood type has no antigens present on the surface of red blood cells?

Type O blood

Which leukocytes differentiate into plasma cells responsible for producing antibodies?

B lymphocytes

If a person has type AB blood, what antibodies are found in their blood plasma?

No antibodies

Which type of anemia would result from a deficiency of intrinsic factor (which helps you to absorb vitamin B12) from the stomach?

Pernicious anemia

Which organ removes bilirubin from albumin and secretes it into bile for fat emulsification?

Liver

Which element is necessary for the activation of factor X and the subsequent coagulation cascade?

Calcium (Ca2+)

Which membrane type lines internal cavities and covers organ surfaces?

Serous membranes

The left ventricle pumps

oxygen-rich blood through the aorta and out to all organs.​

the characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue?

Found in the heart wall, striated, involuntary, and intercalated discs.

What is the name of the serous membrane lining the outer surface of the heart?

Visceral pericardium

Pericarditis

is inflammation of the pericardium. The membranes may become roughened and can cause a painful friction rub each time the heart beats. Common symptoms of pericarditis include chest pain, difficulty breathing, fever, and fatigue. ​

Cardiac tamponade

is a condition in which there is an accumulation of fluid in the pericardial cavity. This accumulation of fluid puts pressure on the heart, preventing it from pumping blood effectively. Common symptoms of cardiac tamponade include low blood pressure, chest pain, difficulty breathing, and vein distension. 

Which layer lines the heart chambers, covers the heart valves, and is continuous with the inner lining of blood vessels attached to the heart. It provides a smooth surface for blood to easily flow through.​

Endocardium 

Which chamber pumps blood to the lungs for oxygenation?

Right ventricle 

The left ventricle pumps

oxygenated blood through the aorta out to all organs of the body.

During which refractory period can cardiac muscle cells respond to a second action potential, but only with a stronger stimulus?

Relative refractory period 

During the absolute refractory period (ARP), cardiac muscle cells are

Completely unresponsive to any electrical stimulus, regardless of how strong the stimulus is. The ARP corresponds to the time when voltage-gated Na⁺ channels are inactivated or closed during depolarization.​

The atrioventricular (AV) valves regulate the

passageway of blood between the atria and ventricles, preventing backflow.

The semilunar valves are found between the

Ventricles and the large vessels and prevent backflow into the ventricles.​

Cardiac pacemaker cells are found within the

Sinoatrial node and are responsible for initiating and regulating the electrical impulses that control the heart's rhythm.​

Ventricular contractile cells make up

most of the heart muscle (primarily found in the ventricles), and contract and pump blood out of the heart.

Which chamber of the heart has the thickest walls?

The left ventricle has the thickest walls of all the heart chambers. This is because it is responsible for pumping oxygenated blood out of all organs of the body.​

What is the primary function of the pericardial fluid?

The primary function of pericardial fluid is to reduce friction between the visceral and parietal layers of the pericardium. This fluid-filled space allows the two layers to glide smoothly against each other, preventing damage to the heart and ensuring that the heart's movements are not impeded. ​

During which phase of the cardiac action potential do ventricular contractile cells exhibit the plateau effect, allowing for sustained contraction? 

During depolarization, voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open and sodium enters the cell. Once enough Na⁺ has entered to peak voltage at nearly +30 mV, calcium channels open. Calcium enters the cell, prolonging depolarization for 200-250 ms. This is known as the plateau phase. ​

What happens during the depolarization phase of cardiac muscle?

Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open. This allows an influx of sodium ions into the cell, resulting in rapid depolarization of the cell membrane. This phase is essential for the initiation of an action potential in cardiac muscle cells.​

Which contains cardiac pacemaker cells that are responsible for coordinating the rhythmic contractions of the heart? 

The sinoatrial (SA) node contains cardiac pacemaker cells that coordinate the rhythmic contractions of the heart. These cells generate electrical impulses that spread through the atria, causing them to contract.​

What is the main function of the coronary sinus? 

To collect deoxygenated blood from the heart wall

Which type of vessels carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart?

Arteries

Which heart chamber receives oxygenated blood from the lungs?

Left atrium

Assuming a patient is perfectly healthy, all the blood in the right atrium will move into which area?

Right ventricle

Which valve prevents the backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium? 

Bicuspid valve (mitral valve) 

Oxygen-poor blood from the legs returns to the heart through which vessel?

Inferior vena cava

In the lungs, blood becomes oxygenated and releases carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart via which structure?

Pulmonary veins

Which vessel collects deoxygenated blood from the myocardium and drains directly into the right atrium?

Coronary sinus

​Coronary Artery Diseases (CAD)

A buildup of fatty deposits (plaques) occurs on the inner walls of the coronary arteries. This can lead to the narrowing and blockage of these vital vessels, reducing blood flow to the heart muscle. This can result in angina (chest pain) or a myocardial infarction (heart attack).

Congenital Heart Defects

Some individuals are born with structural abnormalities in their hearts, such as holes or malformed valves. These can disrupt the normal flow of blood and may require surgical correction.​

Heart Failure

Heart failure occurs when the heart cannot pump blood effectively to meet the body's needs. This can result from various underlying causes, including conditions that impair the heart's ability to fill with blood.

Valvular Heart Disease

Valvular heart disease involves problems with the heart's valves, such as stenosis (narrowing) or regurgitation (leakage). These conditions can impede the flow of blood within the heart chambers, causing symptoms like shortness of breath, fatigue, and chest discomfort.

Which heart condition is characterized by structural abnormalities present since birth and typically requires surgical intervention?

Congenital heart defects (CHDs)

From the right atrium, deoxygenated blood flows through which valve to enter the right ventricle?

Tricuspid valve 

A patient comes to the emergency room complaining of pain in the left inner arm and chest, and shortness of breath. Upon receiving the results of blood labs and an electrocardiogram, it was noted that the patient experienced a heart attack. In which heart vessels would you likely find narrowing that contributed to the myocardial infarction?

Coronary arteries

Which blood vessel carries oxygen-poor blood from the upper body, including the head and arms, to the right atrium of the heart? 

Superior vena cava

Which chamber of the heart contains the thickest myocardium that contracts to pump blood to all organs of the body?

Left ventricle

Which event of an action potential is defined by an influx of sodium ions?

Depolarization

Which valve prevents the backflow of blood into the right ventricle?

Pulmonary valve

Which chamber of the heart has the thickest wall?

Left ventricle

Ventricular fibrillation (VFib)

This is the most widely known arrhythmia with a rapid heartbeat that can be life-threatening. It prevents the heart from effectively pumping blood, leading to a medical emergency. On an ECG, VFib appears as chaotic, irregular waves. ​

Atrial fibrillation (AFib)

AFib is one of the most prevalent arrhythmias. It involves rapid and irregular contractions of the atria and can lead to an irregular and often fast heartbeat. No distinct P waves are observed on an ECG, and the QRS complex is chaotic and irregular.

Premature contractions

Premature atrial contractions (PACs) and premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) involve early heartbeats originating in the atria or ventricles, respectively. On an ECG, PACs have a premature P wave and PVCs have a wide QRS complex with no preceding P wave.

What does the term "systole" refer to in the cardiac cycle?

Contraction of the heart chambers

Tachycardia

A heart rate between 60 and 100 bpm is normal for adults. Tachycardia is a persistent, resting heart rate above 100 bpm that can be caused by heart disease, anxiety, stimulants, infection, or stress. Heart rate can elevate to compensate for a decreased stroke volume as well. 

Bradycardia 

A persistent, resting heart rate below 60 bpm is bradycardia. This is common during sleep and in endurance-trained athletes. This can also occur when body temperature drops (hypothermia).

A client presents with a resting heart rate of 50 bpm. The nurse recalls that this heart rate is what?

An indication of bradycardia