Psych exam key studies

Berry

1967, Aim: investigate how culture influences conformity

Procedure: used a version of Asch’s line judgement task and used participants from individualist, collectivist, and a control group to test the cultural impact on conformity.

Results: The participants from collectivist cultures conformed much more often than the individualist or control groups

Laboratory Experiment

Sherif

1961, Aim: To investigate whether intergroup conflict arises from competition over limited resources, and whether cooperation on shared goals can reduce conflict.

Procedure: 22 boys at a summer camp were divided into two groups (Eagles & Rattlers). They first bonded separately, then competed in games, and finally worked together on superordinate goals (e.g., fixing a water tank).

Results: Competition led to hostility (fights, name-calling). Cooperation on shared tasks reduced conflict and promoted friendship between groups.

Conclusion: Supports Realistic Conflict Theory: intergroup conflict is caused by competition and can be reduced through cooperative tasks with shared goals.

Field experiment

Kulkofsky

2011, Aim: to investigate the role of culture (individualism vs. collectivism) on the formation of flashbulb memories.

Procedure: Participants from five countries (USA, UK, Germany, China, Turkey) recalled public events from the past year. They were asked questions about their personal experience and national importance of the event. Cultural values were assessed via questionnaire.

Results: People from individualistic cultures (e.g., USA, UK) were more likely to form flashbulb memories about personal relevance. Collectivist cultures (e.g., China) placed less emphasis on personal involvement and emotional expression.

Conclusion: Cultural values influence what kinds of events are remembered vividly. Individualistic cultures focus more on individual experience; collectivist cultures emphasize group importance.

Research Method: Correlational study using surveys and self-report questionnaires across cultures (cross-cultural etic approach).

Harris and Fiske

2006, Aim: To investigate the biological correlates of prejudice by observing how the brain responds to extreme out-groups (e.g., homeless people, drug addicts).

Procedure: Participants were shown images of different social groups (including people from stigmatized groups) while undergoing fMRI brain scans. Researchers measured brain activity in regions related to emotion and empathy.

Results: Images of extreme out-groups (e.g., homeless, drug addicts) triggered activity in the amygdala and insula (associated with disgust), but not in the medial prefrontal cortex (associated with social cognition and empathy).

Conclusion: Extreme out-groups may be dehumanized at a neurological level, leading to a lack of empathy. This supports theories of stereotyping and discrimination.

Research Method: Laboratory experiment using fMRI (brain imaging) to study neural responses to visual stimuli (images of people).

Aronson and Mills

1959, Aim: To investigate whether individuals who undergo a severe initiation to join a group value the group more than those who undergo a mild or no initiation.

Procedure: Female college students were told they were joining a discussion group. They were randomly assigned to three conditions: severe initiation (reading explicit content aloud), mild initiation, or no initiation. After initiation, all listened to a deliberately boring discussion.

Results: Participants in the severe initiation group rated the discussion group as more interesting and valuable, despite it being boring.

Conclusion: Cognitive dissonance may lead individuals to increase the value of a group or activity if they suffered to be part of it. This helps reduce psychological discomfort.

Research Method: Laboratory experiment with independent variable manipulation (initiation severity) and measured attitudes toward the group.

Festinger

1956, Aim: to investigate how people react when their strong beliefs are proven wrong, particularly in the context of a failed prophecy.

Procedure: joined a doomsday cult that believed the world would end on a specific date. They used covert participant observation to document how members responded when the prophecy failed.

Results: When the world did not end, rather than abandoning their beliefs, cult members justified the failure by claiming their faith had saved the world. They became even more committed.

Conclusion: The study supports cognitive dissonance theory: people experience discomfort when beliefs conflict with reality, and they may rationalize to reduce this dissonance.

Research Method: Covert participant observation – researchers joined the cult undercover to observe behavior without participants knowing they were part of a study.

Cialdini

• Aim: Test the lowball technique in a university setting.

• Procedure: Students asked to take part in a study on thinking. Half were told upfront it was at 7am, others were told after they agreed.

• Results: Only 24% agreed upfront. But when lowballed, 56% agreed and 95% actually showed up.

• Conclusion: Once people commit, they’re more likely to follow through, even if the conditions change.

• Field experiment

freedman and fraser

• Aim: Test whether agreeing to a small request increases likelihood of agreeing to a larger one later.

• Procedure: Participants were first asked to sign a small petition. Later, asked to put a large "Drive Safely" sign in their yard.

• Results: Those who signed the petition were more likely to agree to the large sign.

• Conclusion: Small acts of compliance can lead to larger ones. (foot in the door)

• field experiment

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Aim: Investigate how the phrasing of questions affects eyewitness memory.

Procedure:

• Participants watched car crash videos.

• Asked to estimate car speeds using different verbs ("smashed," "hit," etc.).

• Second experiment asked if they saw broken glass (none was present).

Results:

• More intense verbs (e.g., "smashed") led to higher speed estimates.

• "Smashed" group more likely to falsely recall broken glass.

Implications:

• Memory is reconstructive and influenced by external factors like language.

• Highlights the unreliability of eyewitness testimony.

Jamieson et al (2011)

Aim: Investigate whether reappraising arousal as a positive response to stress improves performance on stressful tasks.

Procedure:

• Participants were placed in a high-stress situation (e.g., public speaking or math tasks).

• One group was instructed to reinterpret their physiological arousal (e.g., increased heart rate) as a helpful response.

• Performance and physiological responses were measured.

Results:

• Participants who reappraised arousal as positive performed better on tasks and showed healthier physiological responses (e.g., lower vascular resistance).

Implications:

• Reappraising stress can reduce its negative impact and enhance performance.

• Supports cognitive appraisal theories of emotion and stress management techniques.

Bartlett (1932)

Aim: Investigate how memory is influenced by cultural schemas and whether it is reconstructive.

Procedure:

• Participants were asked to read and recall the Native American story "The War of the Ghosts."

• Repeated reproduction: Participants recalled the story multiple times over varying intervals.

• Serial reproduction: The story was retold from one participant to another, like a game of telephone.

Results:

• Participants altered details to fit their own cultural schemas (e.g., "canoe" became "boat," and supernatural elements were omitted or rationalized).

• The story became shorter and more coherent with each recall.

Implications:

• Memory is reconstructive and influenced by cultural and personal schemas.

• Highlights how prior knowledge and experiences shape how we encode and recall information.

atkinson and shiffrin (1968)

Overview: A model describing memory as a system with three distinct stores where information is processed and transferred.

Components:

1. Sensory Memory:

   • Stores sensory information (e.g., sights, sounds) for a brief time (milliseconds to seconds).

   • Information decays quickly unless attention is given.

2. Short-Term Memory (STM):

   • Holds limited information (7±2 items) for 15–30 seconds.

   • Information is lost through decay or displacement unless rehearsed.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM):

   • Stores information indefinitely and has an unlimited capacity.

   • Information is encoded semantically (based on meaning) and retrieved when needed.

Processes:

• Attention: Transfers information from sensory memory to STM.

• Rehearsal: Maintains information in STM and aids transfer to LTM.

• Retrieval: Brings information from LTM back to STM for use.

Strengths:

• Provides a clear structure for memory processes.

• Supported by evidence (e.g., serial position effect, case studies like HM).

Limitations:

• Oversimplifies memory processes; ignores interaction between stores.

• Lacks explanation for deeper processing (as proposed by the Levels of Processing model).

Baddely and Hitch

Overview: A model describing short-term memory as an active system for temporarily storing and manipulating information with multiple components.

Components:

1. Central Executive:

   • The "control center" that directs attention, prioritizes tasks, and allocates resources to other components.

   • Limited capacity.

2. Phonological Loop:

   • Handles verbal and auditory information.

   • Two subcomponents:

     • Phonological Store: Temporarily holds spoken words.

     • Articulatory Control System: Rehearses information to keep it active (inner voice).

3. Visuospatial Sketchpad:

   • Processes visual and spatial information (e.g., mental images, maps).

   • Limited capacity.

4. Episodic Buffer (added in 2000):

   • Integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into a single "episode."

Strengths:

• Explains multitasking in different sensory modalities (e.g., listening while driving).

• Supported by empirical evidence (e.g., dual-task studies).

Limitations:

• Central executive is vaguely defined and difficult to measure.

• Does not fully explain how information transfers to and interacts with long-term memory.

HM Case Study

Aim: Investigate the role of the hippocampus in memory formation.

Background:

• HM (Henry Molaison) underwent surgery to treat epilepsy, which involved removing parts of his hippocampus and surrounding medial temporal lobe.

Findings:

• Anterograde amnesia: HM was unable to form new long-term memories after the surgery.

• Intact STM: Short-term memory remained functional but could not transfer information to long-term memory.

• Procedural memory: HM could learn new motor skills (e.g., mirror-drawing task) despite not remembering the learning process.

Implications:

• The hippocampus is crucial for transferring information from short-term to long-term memory.

• Distinction between declarative memory (episodic and semantic) and procedural memory.

• Supported the concept of memory localization in the brain.

Limitations:

• Case studies lack generalizability.

• Findings are based on a single patient with unique circumstances.

Newcomer et al 1999

Aim:
To investigate how levels of cortisol (a stress hormone) affect verbal declarative memory.

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Procedure:

• Participants were divided into three groups:

  1. High cortisol dose (160 mg per day, similar to a major stress event).

  2. Low cortisol dose (40 mg per day, similar to a minor stress event).

  3. Placebo group (no cortisol).

• Participants took cortisol tablets for four days and were asked to complete a verbal declarative memory test (recalling parts of a prose passage).

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Results:

• The high-dose group showed significant impairment in memory performance.

• The low-dose group showed no significant memory decline.

• The placebo group performed best overall, suggesting that high cortisol impairs memory.

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Implications:

• High levels of cortisol negatively impact the hippocampus, which is critical for memory consolidation and retrieval.

• Demonstrates the biological link between stress and cognitive performance.

• Highlights the importance of managing chronic stress to maintain memory and cognitive health.

Sharot 2007

Aim:
To investigate the role of the amygdala in the formation of flashbulb memories.

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Procedure:

• 24 participants who were in New York City during the 9/11 attacks underwent fMRI scans.

• While in the scanner, they were shown words to prompt memories related to 9/11 (e.g., "summer" or "September").

• Participants were asked to recall either their experiences during the attacks (9/11-related memories) or ordinary, everyday memories from the same time period.

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Results:

• Activation of the amygdala was significantly higher when participants recalled 9/11-related memories compared to ordinary memories.

• Participants who were closer to the World Trade Center during the attacks showed even greater amygdala activation.

• Suggests that personal proximity and emotional significance enhance the vividness of flashbulb memories.

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Implications:

• The amygdala plays a critical role in emotional memory formation, especially for vivid, long-lasting flashbulb memories.

• Supports the idea that emotionally arousing events are processed differently in the brain, contributing to enhanced memory retention.

• Provides biological evidence for the Flashbulb Memory Theory.

Demasio 2000

Aim:
To investigate the role of the somatic marker hypothesis in decision-making and how emotions influence cognitive processes.

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Procedure:

• Damasio studied individuals with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), a brain region associated with emotion regulation and decision-making.

• Participants were observed in tasks requiring decision-making and emotional evaluation (e.g., the Iowa Gambling Task).

• Their performance was compared to individuals with intact vmPFCs.

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Results:

• Individuals with vmPFC damage struggled to make advantageous decisions, consistently choosing risky options despite negative outcomes.

• They exhibited a lack of emotional responses (measured via physiological markers like skin conductance) to risky choices, which hindered their ability to learn from negative experiences.

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Implications:

• Emotions play a critical role in decision-making, serving as "somatic markers" that guide choices by associating options with positive or negative feelings.

• Damage to brain regions like the vmPFC disrupts the integration of emotional signals, leading to poor decision-making.

• Highlights the interconnectedness of cognitive and emotional processes in human behavior.

Spiesman 1964

Aim:
To investigate how cognitive appraisal affects the emotional response to a stressful situation.

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Procedure:

• Participants watched a film of an Aboriginal circumcision ritual, which included graphic and distressing scenes.

• The film was accompanied by one of three soundtracks to manipulate cognitive appraisal:

  1. Trauma condition: Emphasized the pain and danger.

  2. Denial condition: Downplayed the pain and focused on the participants’ willingness and pride.

  3. Intellectualization condition: Provided a scientific explanation of the ritual.

• Emotional responses were measured using physiological indicators (heart rate, skin conductance) and self-reports.

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Results:

• Participants in the trauma condition showed higher physiological arousal and reported more emotional distress.

• Participants in the denial and intellectualization conditions showed lower arousal and less distress.

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Implications:

• Cognitive appraisal influences the emotional response to stressful situations.

• Supports Lazarus' theory of appraisal, which suggests that how we interpret an event determines the intensity of our emotional experience.

• Demonstrates the interaction between cognition and emotion in shaping psychological and physiological responses.

4o

Schacter and Singer 1962

Aim:
To test the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion, which posits that emotion arises from physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

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Procedure:

• Participants were injected with adrenaline and divided into four groups:

  1. Informed: Told the correct effects of adrenaline (e.g., increased heart rate).

  2. Misinformed: Told incorrect effects (e.g., numbness, headache).

  3. Ignorant: Not informed of any effects.

  4. Placebo: Given a placebo injection with no physiological effects.

• Participants were placed in either a euphoric condition (playful confederate) or an angry condition (irritable confederate).

• Researchers observed participants’ behavior and recorded their self-reported emotions.

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Results:

• Euphoria condition: Ignorant and misinformed groups were more likely to adopt the confederate’s euphoric behavior compared to the informed group.

• Anger condition: Ignorant group reported higher levels of anger compared to the informed group.

• Participants who had no explanation for their physiological arousal relied on situational cues to label their emotions.

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Implications:

• Emotions are the result of both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of the situation.

• Supports the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion.

• Highlights the interaction between biological and cognitive factors in emotional experiences.

Neisser and Harsch 1992

Aim:
To investigate the accuracy of flashbulb memories over time.

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Procedure:

• Participants were asked to recall their memories of the 1986 Challenger space shuttle disaster.

• Initial questionnaire: Completed within 24 hours of the event, asking details about where they were, what they were doing, and how they felt.

• Follow-up questionnaire: Administered 2.5 years later to assess consistency.

• Participants also rated their confidence in the accuracy of their memories.

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Results:

• Significant discrepancies were found between the initial and follow-up accounts.

• Despite inconsistencies, participants expressed high confidence in their memories.

• Only a small percentage of participants had completely accurate recollections.

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Implications:

• Flashbulb memories are vivid but not immune to distortion or reconstruction over time.

• Memory confidence does not necessarily correlate with memory accuracy.

• Challenges the idea that emotionally significant events result in perfectly accurate memories.

Maguire (2006)

Aim: To investigate how extensive spatial navigation experience affects autobiographical and semantic memory in London taxi drivers.
Procedure: Compared 18 male taxi drivers with 18 matched controls using the Autobiographical Interview to assess internal (episodic) and external (semantic) memory details.
Results: Taxi drivers had fewer episodic (internal) but more semantic (external) details in autobiographical recall.
Implications: Suggests neural trade-offs in the hippocampus—enhanced spatial memory may reduce episodic recall due to hippocampal neuroplasticity.

Newcomer et al 1999

Aim: To investigate the effect of cortisol (a stress hormone) on verbal declarative memory.
Procedure: 51 healthy participants randomly assigned to 3 groups:

1. High cortisol (160 mg/day),

2. Low cortisol (40 mg/day),

3. Placebo.
   Cortisol/placebo was given daily for 4 days; memory was tested using a verbal recall task.
   Results: The high cortisol group showed significantly worse memory performance than the other groups.
   Implications: High levels of stress hormones can impair memory, suggesting a link between biological stress responses and cognitive function.

Wedekind 1995

Aim: To test whether MHC genes (which influence immune system function) affect mate preference through smell.
Procedure: 44 male and 49 female students. Men wore a T-shirt for 2 nights without scent contamination. Women smelled 7 shirts (3 with similar MHC, 3 with different MHC, 1 unworn) and rated attractiveness.
Results: Women preferred the scent of men with dissimilar MHC genes, especially when not on hormonal contraceptives.
Implications: Suggests biological factors influence human mate choice, supporting the evolutionary theory of attraction via genetic compatibility.

Bouchard 1990

Aim: To investigate the relative influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on intelligence and other traits.

Procedure: Longitudinal study comparing MZ twins reared apart (MZA) and MZ twins reared together (MZT). Twins completed over 50 hours of psychological and physiological testing, including IQ tests.

Results: Concordance rate for IQ was ~76% for MZA and ~86% for MZT, suggesting a strong genetic component.

Implications: Intelligence is highly heritable, but environment still plays a role; supports the influence of genes on behavior, particularly cognitive ability.

Rozenwig 1972

Aim: To examine whether environmental factors (enriched vs. deprived conditions) affect brain development, particularly the cerebral cortex.

Procedure: Rats were randomly assigned to two conditions:

Enriched: toys, social interaction, stimulation

Deprived: isolated, no toys

After 30–60 days, their brains were examined.

Results: Rats in the enriched environment had a thicker cerebral cortex, more neurotransmitter activity, and more synaptic connections.

Implications: Environment can influence brain plasticity and development, even in adulthood; supports the interaction between biology and experience.

Phineas Gage

Aim: (Natural case study) To understand how brain injury, particularly to the frontal lobe, affects behavior and personality.
Procedure: Gage survived an accident in 1848 where an iron rod passed through his skull, destroying part of his left frontal lobe. His case was observed and documented over time.
Results: After the accident, Gage’s personality changed drastically—he became impulsive, aggressive, and irresponsible, though his memory and intelligence remained intact.
Implications: Provided early evidence that the frontal lobe is involved in personality, decision-making, and social behavior; supports localization of brain function.

Zhou et al 2014

Aim: To investigate the role of chemosensory communication (pheromones) in human sexual behavior and perception of gender.

Procedure: Participants (heterosexual and homosexual males and females) were shown ambiguous stick figure animations walking, while exposed to:

AND (a male pheromone)

EST (a female pheromone)

or a control scent.

They were asked to identify the gender of the figures.

Results:

Heterosexual females and homosexual males exposed to AND were more likely to perceive the figure as male.

Heterosexual males and homosexual females exposed to EST were more likely to perceive the figure as female.

Implications: Suggests pheromones can influence gender perception and may play a role in sexual attraction, supporting a biological basis for human sexual behavior.

Baumgarten et al (2008)

Aim: To investigate the role of oxytocin in trust during economic decision-making.

Procedure: Participants played a trust game involving money investments with a human or computer partner. Before the game, they were given either oxytocin or a placebo via nasal spray. Some experienced a breach of trust (betrayal), and researchers used fMRI to observe brain activity.

Results: Participants who received oxytocin continued to trust even after betrayal, while the placebo group showed less trust. fMRI showed reduced activity in the amygdala and caudate nucleus (areas linked to fear and reward evaluation) in the oxytocin group.

Implications: Oxytocin plays a role in reducing fear and promoting trust, even after betrayal; supports the biological basis of social behavior.

Martinez and Kesner

Aim: To determine the role of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) in the formation of spatial memory.
Procedure: Rats were trained to run a maze. After learning, they were divided into groups:

• One group received a drug that blocked ACh (scopolamine)

• One received a drug that enhanced ACh (physostigmine)

• One was a control group
  Performance in completing the maze was then measured.
  Results:

• Scopolamine group was slower and made more errors

• Physostigmine group was faster and made fewer errors
  Implications: Acetylcholine is important in memory formation, especially spatial memory; supports the role of neurotransmitters in cognitive functions.

Janowsky

Aim: Investigate how cholinergic and adrenergic systems influence mood.
Procedure: Gave physostigmine (boosts ACh) and atropine (blocks ACh) to participants.
Results: Physostigmine induced depressive symptoms; atropine caused mood elevation.
Implications: Suggested depression = cholinergic dominance; mania = adrenergic dominance. Informed treatment targets for mood disorders.