Cold War - period of geopolitical tensions between the US and USSR 

Legacy of WWII

• US emerged as a superpower → didn't do much before ⇒ 

• EU and JAP destroyed in infrastructure → US build EU and JAP to its own image 

• Increasing tensions between US and USSR

• During WW2, USSR seen as convenient ally but did invade POL but once WW2 over they don't leave territories they conquered → commu like it, can liberate the people with commu → leads to emergence of cold war 

• Eastern EU gets swallowed by USSR 

• Division of EU - socialists/communists vs capitalists 

Bretton Woods 1944 - Conference to deal with problems of currency and exchange in New Hampshire. Creates an international basis for exchanging one currency for another, led to creation of IMF and world bank - dollar will be the international currency of exchange. 

Yalta Conference Feb 4-11 1945 - US, UK, USSR - Decision to divide Germany and Berlin by section of countries : FR, BR, US, GER  + Disarm Germany → USSR steals the GER factories as a form of reparation = extract GER wealth

Potsdam Conference July 17 - August 2 1945 - Truman (US), Attlee (UK), Stalin (USSR) -  Last conference between the great powers before Cold War: Reparation for winners, preserve soviet-western coalition, Germany loses cities, plan to create healthy economic world that doesn't succumb to crisis, support liberalism - USSR never makes peace w/ GER by 1950s→ Stalin bitter about losing so many people

Creation of UN-1945

• Part of Atlantic Charter (August 1941) with Churchill and FDR that met to redesign world to look different than age of empires to nation states and diplomacy 

• Meeting in SF 1945, drew up charter 

• New organisation designed to maintain international peace and security and encourage cooperation in solving international social, economic, and cultural problems 

• Structure

  • General assembly : one nation = 1 vote (change de league of nations) → liberalism 

  • Security council : 5 permanent members, veto (US, USSR, GB, FR, CHI) 

• UN largely fails to fulfil its role during the Cold War due to conflict between the US and USSR
  

Issue and use of Atom Bomb

• 1949→ USSR has the bomb, arms race between them and US

• Build huge stockpiles of atomic weaponry, starts arms race

• Cold War because with 2 nuclear powers, not viable to have hot war

• MAD (mutually assured destruction)

Iron Curtain Speech - March 5, 1946 - “An Iron Curtain has descended across the continent” - Churchill (not PM anymore) warns of a dire threat (communism) at a commencement during presidential campaign in US at a university, communism has created division, BR and US need to act together to fight against communism —> Meaning of speech : US please dont leave EU, no isolation like WW1

Pan-Arabism (get rid of Western Imperialism), Nasser, Non-Aligned Movement

American initiatives at the start of the Cold War
Truman Doctrine

• Emerges from strategic importance of Greece and Turkey, Greek Civil War

  • Churchill and Stalin, cocktail napkin —> Greece and Turkey to be British. After WWII C parties rise and there’s a civil war in both countries where C parties trying to take over the Government. England doesn’t have the money/morale to intervene and contain C so turns to the US.

  • On March 12, 1947, President Harry S. Truman presented this address before a joint session of Congress. His message, known as the Truman Doctrine, asked Congress for $400 million in military and economic assistance for Turkey and Greece.

• Policy containment of communism

• George Kennan US researcher to analyze USSR state and say if its acting as an expansionist imperialist power 

  • US should not investigate a war with soviet union 

  • US should defend other nations from USSR take over (domino effect, communism like a virus) (economic help) 

US now doesnt like RUS having Eastern EU so Stalin feels backstabbed

Marshall Plan and containment policy 1948-1951

• US conquers JAP and GER and instead of reparation, they give them money → changing world stage !!, bigger person (also to their advantage to impose capitalism instead of communism, buy US goods with $) 

• George Marshall - secretary of state

• 13 billion $ to EU, expected to be US allies : support economic growth, fuel, machinery 

• Precursor to UE, leads to it 

• Isolate USSR, Stalin thought it was US imperialism

Berlin Blockade 1948/49

• Berlin divided into 4 (East Berlin : liberal capitalists) vs West (commu) 

• Stalin decides to cut off the city → allies pipeline cant reach berlin, famine, allied outnumbered military 

• Solution : supply city through air, USSR can't shoot because would declare war 

• Truman could not decide if retreat or war→ got very close to war

• Blockade hurt more soviet economy, allies even more allied 

• Lifted may 1949

A New World Order→ created by US

Atlantic charter→ august 1941

• Reborn nation of WIlson's 14 points

• Goal: No territorial aggrandizement, Self determination and freedom of seas (trade across oceans), Guaranteed each nation’s security (alliance system), Disarmament (no more arms race), Global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all (traded with all, open up market, GATT, start globalization)

• Planned during WWII by Churchill and Roosevelt

NATO 1949 —> West GER became a country ; War of political influence, threat and distance 

Soviet Initiatives

Cominform

Socialist international meeting, foster social networking → how to spread commu in countries 

Cooperation of commu states, coordinate activities, ideological unity 

Spread fear that capital, liberal countries would fall to Coms

COMECON

Council for mutual economic assistance 

Facilitate and coordinate the economic development of the eastern European countries belonging to the Soviet bloc → Stalin’s response to marshall plan to help eastern EU economically 

Warsaw Pact 1955

Retaliated for the creation of NATO, military alliance among the USSR and other communist alliances

The perspective of Stalin

1. Protection for slavs→ 

   1. Stalin gained credibility after war, wide appeal around world, 

   2. Red army largest force, West could do nothing to stop them, nothing could, Soviets followed past conquer→ wanted back land (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,...), 

   3. Argument with US→ USSR supposed to just occupy lands they once had, thought it was spoils of victory, wanted buffer zone against GER

2. Great powers call the shots→

   1. Stalin saw Napoleon in Hitler, during Yalta and Potsdam conferences→ FDR, Churchill, agree on territory between GER and USSR had to be under Soviet control

3. Stalinization: eastern EU feels forgotten, stalins comes in and nobody does anything about it

   1. Poland and Hungary under Soviet control

   2. Stalin though capitalist countries would go to war between them, WW3 coming between them had to wait until world collapse in communist rev, 

      1. Though they would split on how to handle GER

4. Stalin fearful of West→ after war got back to industrial dev and military expansion, continue to build 1930s economy
   

Nuremberg Trials-aug 1945-1949

Crimes against humanity, war crimes punished

4 winners (US, FR, BR, USSR) put on trial losers (GR, JAP)

Put on trial: Herman Göring, Rudolf Hess,... 

Executed 12 people→ 3 life sentences, 4 long sentences, set standard for future war crimes

Prblms: Victors get justice? Sovereign nations ? (they were forced to shoot people, so their fault?)USSR had invaded Poland yet judge the Nazis? 

Proxy Wars / Conflicts

Korean War 1950-1953

Had japanese rule since 1910, during war:

North: USSR satellite, Kimm II sung leader

South: US satellite -1947, Syngman Rhee leader - repressive, support authoritarianism rather than communism 

North invade south in 1950→ US asked security pacts around non-commnuist Asia, but were not trusted because seen as new imperialist power, north wanted to unite country→ USSR boycotts UN → go to war 

US defend South when gets approval from UN, puts troops on ground, Truman wanted “Unified independent democratic Korea”

North, armed by USSR, went all the way down to Seoul, 16 countries send military troops to south

October 1950 china enters war→ ends up China vs US - 500 000 chinese 

Us retreat back behind 38th parallel (were not going to fight with China), embarrassing → technically still at war today

Casualties: 1 US death= 10 North korea +China death → outnumbered but effective

the DMZ and the 38th Parallel

Armistice signed in 1953 

38th parallel → demilitarized land, no side claims side, stop invasion from north to south 

Not all koreans were die hard commu, some wanted to stay in South 

The Vietnam War

US saw war as anti colonialism, independence vs US that thinks it’s a war against commu, domino theory, people’s war.

Vietnam proved that US most powerful power could be defeated by guerilla 

• Ho Chi Minh

  • Poet, led commu rev 

  • Leads commu party that fought against the french - Vietminh independence league 

  • US declaration of independence

  • Anti-colonial vs anti-commu, nationalist war for viet 

  • 1945 - declares independence, becomes political head 

  • Ho CHI Minh trail→ supplies coming into south for north soldiers through cambodia and laos→ US could not do anything about it because not at war w/ these countries

• Brazzaville Declaration 1944

  • 1941 Minh declared overthrow of french rule 

  • De Gaulle plan to keep colonies - brazzaville declaration 

• Vietcong → north 

  • Viet commu nationalist → viewed south viet gov as puppets in the us 

  • Trained, enthusiastic, under-gunned fighting force

• Viet Minh → communist living in the south and Vietcong → soldiers secret fighting against US 

• Dien Bien Phu 1954

  • Battle where the french are deflated, get trapped and surrender to Minh 

  • France recognizes vietnam, cambodia, laos 

• Geneva Accords 1954

  • US steps in and discuss how to deal with viet 

  • US create a separate independent viet : south and north 

  • Says they will have two years in 1956 until elections where they will choose their gov and unite → doesn't work since commu were gonna win so US doesn't like that 

  • US will train South, money, scared of another korea don't want to fight china

• Ngo Dinh Diem

  • Catholic raised western guy, authoritarian, people unhappy 

  • Begin with his brother raiding buddhist pagodas in South claiming they were harboring commu 

  • Result : massive social protests including self-immolation of many buddhist monks 

  • Diem depicted as US friend 

  • Gets assassinated in 1963 even though JFK knew about this and didn't do anything

• THE GULF OF TONKIN INCIDENT —> 1964→ US intelligence missions to determine North Vietnam’s defenses, USS Maddox clashed with coms patrols boats in gulf→ shot at each other, excuse from LBJ to invade north

• Guerilla Warfare in Vietnam

  • Dense terrain→ movement difficult, not running like WW2

  • Surprise and ambush, booby traps, land mines, hide in the trees→ left psychological effects on soldiers

  • Not conventional fights→ Vietcong charged as fast as possible, hit and run, ambushes 

  • US had military superiority: had helicopters, medical aid, transportation, rocket ship 

  • Vietcong hid in villages tried to act normal 

• The Tet Offensive-- Jan 31rst 1968

  • Big battles→ people in the US ask “how is it that if we are winning, if we still need to fight such big battles?”

  • Secret attack→ 70 000 Vietcong sneak into south and create huge uprising at US embassy→ expected people in cities to help kick US out, did not → Viet cong lost

• My Lai Massacre —> Lots of Civilians die→ US shot them all because did not know who the Vietcong were, 200 women, children and old men, ordered by Lieutenant Calley

• Peace with Honor by Nixon

  • Told North vietnam to not negotiate w/ Johnson (limit treason)

  • Bombed them into negotiation, bomb cambodia in “secret” in April 1969 because of Ho Shi Minh trail

• Vietnamization —> Training the south soldiers with US arms so that they could be self sufficient and run their own government without falling apart 

• Us pulls troops out of Vietnam in 1973, then north conquers south, then US embassy leaves in 1975

Cuba 

• Apparition of communism in Cuba 

  • 1956 exiles from Cuba came back to overthrow the dictator 

  • Castro appeared, won the war in 1959, promised lands to peasants, introduced nationalist reforms and nationalized american interests 

  • Che guevara as a cult figure

• Bay of pigs April 17, 1961 

  • Invasion planned by the US to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro by sending CUban exiles trained by the CIA 

  • Invasion didn't go as planned, US air force failed to destroy the cuban one, and then troops took too long to get off the ship and cuban air force sunk the ship, paratroopers landed at the wrong place 

  • Makes the US look weak, strengthen Castro’s regime and started Cuba’s alliance with USSR

• Cuban missile crisis of october 1962 - kinda like today with UKR 

  • Most dangerous moment during the Cold War 

  • USSR puts nuclear missile base in Cuba because it seemed only fair since US had some in Turkey and Italy aimed towards Moscow 

  • Kennedy opted for naval blockade and put Cuba under “quarantine” meaning that no offensive weapons could enter Cuba and an attack from CUba would declare war from USSR 

  • USSR negotiates with US for 13 days with the US agreeing to never invade Cuba again, remove its nuclear bases in Italy and Turkey and the soviets will remove theirs from Cuba with a UN inspection 

  • Almost made WW3 happen with soviet missile hitting US airplane and soviet submarine hit by US on October 27, 1962, could become a nuclear war 

→ restored faith in Kennedy as a great leader and president of the US and victory of diplomacy and the capacity of the two leaders to solve peacefully the crisis 

→ superpower confrontation, geostrategic balance of power dynamics

→ transform cuban society, embargo of the US on cuba that stayed for 60 years, removed recently 

Castro was in power until 2008

Decolonisation and the NAM

Egypt —> Had declared its independence in 1922 but British troops remained until the Suez Canal Crisis of 1956

• The Egyptian Revolution of 1952

  • Egyptian monarchy was apparently corrupted and king farouk failed to deal correctly with the Israel Arab conflict 

  • Led by the Free officers specifically Nasser that wanted to throw out monarchy and B British 

  • Army forced king to abdicate (faced threats from western imperial powers)

  • Agrarian reforms and industrialisation, improved infrastructure → socialist economy in the 60s → influenced other countries to do the same 

• Nasser 

  • Replaced the first president Naguib in 1954 until his death in 1970

  • Banned all political parties replaced by liberation rally 

  • Gave women right to vote, put a new constitution in place, created the National Union that led to the national assembly and the first assembly and parliament since 1952 

• Nasser and the Bandung Conference - non aligned movement 

  • International organisation of 3rd world nations attempting to remain free of cold war competition and imperialism 

  • Founded in 1955 at Bandung conference

  • Nasser as one of the founding fathers of the movement with Nehru (India), Yugoslavia (Tito), Indonesia and Ghana

  • Goals of NAM→ mutual non-aggression, respect for each other’s territorial integrity, equality and mutual benefit, peaceful, nor capitalist or Communist

  • Members of Bandung Conference:

    

• Arab Nationalism / Pan-Arabism and Nasser —> Began to rise during the Egyptian revolution, unite for the glory of the Arab population socioeconomically, politically, and culturally, and learn to develop without the western powers 

• Suez Crisis 1956 

  • Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal (had been controlled by Britain and France)

  • Military intervention by BR, FR, and Israel

  • International pressure, especially US and SU, forced them to withdraw

  • Significant shift in global power dynamics + decline of European colonial influence in the region —> growth of Arab nationalism

• The United Arab Republic 1958-1961

  • Egypt with syria joined this in the goal to create a larger pan-arab state 

  • Ba’ath egypt party supported this union 

  • Syria agreed reluctantly suffering in 1957 from the syrian crisis 

  • Syria became more commu, egypt didn't like it, nasser gets involved, stops commu takeover, puts in place a new constitution

  • Nasser slowly took out all syrians from government

  • Syria revolts, got money from Saudi Arabia to go against Nasser → UAR not successful, led to full domination by Egypt

• Sadat

  • After Nasser’s death from 1970-1981, VP under Nasser 

  • Free officers thought they could manipulate Sadat but not the case 

  • Sadat gov purged the extremists and nasserists 

  • For the islamist mvt 

  • Allied with the US instead of SU, invited to camp david 

  • Economic policy of “open door” where gov controls economy and encourages private investment → led to Bread Riots, didn’t help 

  • Went to Israel in 1977 → lead to peace of 1979

  • Sadat brought to trial the former gov officials under nasser → discontent arised, got assassinated in 1981

• 1973 October War (Yom Kippur War)

  • Since egypt lost six day war in 67, convinced arab nations and syria to fight israel 

  • Lost again in 1973 but seen as a victory → restored egyptian pride → led to negotiations with Israel to get back sinai in exchange for peace → rejected later by arab nations 

Reagan - Outspends during the cold war

RUS economy during Cold War 

• Economy was based on manufacturing, bi-lateral trade 

• RUS built 1950 century planned economy, but didn’t create consumer industry with companies competing → no variety for consumers

• Ex : CZ was complex eco, West bought precise machinery from it but with RUS choice to focus on shoes it made them recess 

• With the centralised economy, RUS and EU missed 4 decades of economic dev 

• RUS economy was not growing 

• People noticed it with shortage of tampons and toilet paper argument, most essential goods→ made people lose faith in ability of commu to keep up, people realised it was a centralised economy
  

End of cold war USSR / fall of communism 

1. Nationalists movements 

Baltic states - Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Moldavia, Armenia, Georgia, Poland, Ukraine → want greater cultural autonomy + own language 

2. High profile dissidents 

Andrey Sakharov demanded reform openly 

Writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn exposed the brutal gulag life in the Life of Ivan Denisovich 

3. Economic crisis in 1988 

Because of this, it convinced members of the SU that commu couldn’t deliver on its promise to improve their material conditions 

Overspending in Afg war 

4. Gorbachev’s decisions to not use violent suppression against democratic reform mvts (POL in 87, end commu in 90, Hungary in 89, CZ, Bulgaria, Romania …) → all got free elections and vote commu down 

Wanted more humanistic approach → believed in commu with a nice face 

Not the same gov compared to CHI with Tiananmen square who rolled the tanks, removed military, suppress police 

Gov lost authority 

END  OF COMMUNISM = FAILURE TO SUPPRESS BREAKAWAY MOVEMENT 

Gorbachev —> tries to reform the Soviet Union in 1985 due to being behind to the West 

• Wanted more openness, greater free expression = glasnost, drop central planning of agriculture in favor of free market economy, looked for FDI in 1987 from the west, slowed down arm race bc couldn’t afford it  

• Perestroika, "restructuring" —> the restructuring of the political and economic systems of the Soviet Union, in an attempt to end the Era of Stagnation.

• Berlin wall fell in 1989 → elections sent commu packing, eastern Germany will be a weight to the west Germany 

• Eastern eu countries started to want their independence 

• Boris Yeltsin critiqued Gorbachev and announced that RUS would be a sovereign, independent State → people supported him

• Gorbachev sent military to overthrow Yeltsin, Yeltsin did the same, supreme court ended powers accorded to Gorbachev, Gorbachev gave up and Yeltsin was elected President of the “Russian Federation”, implement a market economy in RUS 

• Looks like everyone is going towards liberalism, end of commu, all republics left SU 

• —> SU washed away by a tide of reform and nationalism 

China

Period of Humiliation

1839→ loose Opium war w/ BR

1850-64→ Taipling Rebellion (christian people come over) → devastates China, Christians leader forms rebellion, lost, chrisitianry crushed in China 

1894-1895→ Japan defeated China in 6m. , take Korea and Manchuria

1899 → Open door policy by west who has ports in Chi

1912→ liberal democratic overthrows monarch→ China falls apart in struggle of warlords (not united until 1928 with Chiang Kai-Sheck)

1928→ Chiang Kai-Sheck rises out of this and becomes leader, civil war, commu emerge

Jap in country until 1945

1949→ communist takeover , Sheck goes to Taiwan, comms caused downfall 

Sun Yat-sen

Liberal Reformer, first president in 1911

Chiang Kai-Shek

Came out as leader in 1928 after china was broken from 1910-1920, leaves in 1949

Took Beijing and united China

From the Kuomintang (nationalust Party) dynasty, supported by Sun Yat-Sen 

Mao Zedong

Leader of China from 1949-1976

Saw revolutionary potential for chinese peasantry, impoverished, oppressed parasitic landlords

Converted to comm in 1918, started out as librarian then urban labor organiser

1925→ Chinese textiles strikes spread from Coastal cities to rural China, see peasants

Why Communists won in China

Overturned Feudalism→ peasants paid 50% of crops to landlords

Half of all land owned by 4% pop, 70% owned 1/6

Land Hunger→ offer land, will follow

Mao gets following of masses because offers to redistribute wealth

History: Sheck pushed them out, but Stalin helped them so came back in, fight together to get rid of Jap, 1934-1935→ Sheck chased coms to North, forced them to make long march, Sheck stop chasing them because Stalin had his son and stalin was aligned with the comms of china

1949→ Communist win civil war w/ Mao 

China and the Korean War→see cold war 

Seen as chinese victory for propaganda, held back imperialism and capitalism 

US worried about chinese involvement in vietnam so beg of diplomatic relation, 1970 Nixon establishes relationship with China 

Sino-soviet split 1956-1966

Soviets critique reform plan of mao → saying its not working, useless reforms so they break their relation 

illiberal aspects of making the communist state (looks a little like USSR)

800k enemies killed 1949-54

Forced labor camps, re-education through propaganda, self-criticism sessions

Destroyed opposition

Civil, political rights abolished (life, liberty, property not protected), freedom of press dies 

temples/ churches closed

Gov controls info→ removed prostitution and drug abuse

Women full equality outside of home

Keep capitalists in cities for factories 

Rise to Power: 1950-1953→ China defeats North Korea against US → triumph

 1962→ border disput w/ India→ wins again

 1970→ Nixon establishes relation w/ china → gets seat on security council 

Let a Hundred Flowers Bloom 1956 

How can we make commu better ? 

Mao believed that so much, he would let people talk / discuss freely 

Once critics emerged, shuts it down → intellectual, artists, counter revolutionaries sent to camp 

Flirting with democracy but as soon as he has it, shuts it down 

The Great Leap Forward 1958-61  = fast industrialization 

Adopts soviet five year plan - expansion of industry instead of consumer goods 

Coincides with famine 

GLF (1958-1961): abolishes private poverty, land redistribution to the peasants, collectivization, state control of industrial production 

GLF backfires due to chaos and failures to produce → Mao loses influence in Politburo (party leader group)

Great Famine in China during GLF

Tries to mass produce steel with small industry but doesn't work →makes shawty product, break

Communes lied about stats so china continued to export and 30 millions die of famine 

The Cultural Revolution 1966-1976 

Mao’s attempt to appeal directly to the people not the party → support from the masses 

Mao’s ascension to power until he dies in 76 

Youth joined, accused older people→ chance for students to be part of something big

Creation of red guards - young people ran tribunals against people not commu enough, want confession of people, lack of purity to commu → put on trial to confess sins 

Elimination of enemies

Persecution of intellectuals, teachers, artists→ 500 000 lost their lives

Wanted to remove “feudal” or “bourgeois” thoughts and culture

Fails economy and creates chaos→ caused shift to the right

Mao Personality Cult

People went around quoting him, heavy use of propaganda

Mao became increasingly isolated - emperor lifestyle, lives in forbidden city like emperor

Declining health - swims in river to seem vibrant 

Deng 1981-1989 / same time as Reagan 

2nd generation comms party, father of Socialist Market Economy

“Dare to be rich”--> not like Mao, pragmatist not ideological , does what works

Destroyed the old China→ build skyscrapers

Pull china to 20th century

Father of the socialist market economy 

1984→ negotiates return of Honk Kong from BR

1997→ “one China, two systems”

"No matter if it is a white cat or a black cat; as long as it can catch mice, it is a good cat." →  no matter the party→ if helps economy you do it

Illiberal state capitalism→ Deng’s revolution

Made china’s entry into world economic system → allows trade 

Open china’s market to world

Turned away from Marxist class struggle ideology

Favored progressive policy, broke up collectivization ( have small farmer private land, private property → people do better than before, provides incentive for farmers to get rich = capitalism ) 

Lifted 800 millions of chinese out of poverty, pursue self interest 

Special Economic Zones (SEZ)

Zones where people build factories at port cities→ brings trade- works→ start doing it everywhere else 

Get FDI in these places (allows business from other countries to come in here)

Four Modernizations

Agriculture, Industry (private industry), Science and Tech (Start using western education, send students to other countries), Military, national defense 

Lifted the restrictions against private business, made hard work benefit the people first 

China the middle class and poverty 

Food production increased 50% after 1978

1978-1987→ per capita income doubled

Deng lifted 200m people out of poverty

Encouraged chinese to pursue self interest rather than state sacrifices

2020 → eliminated absolute poverty 

New woman / new man under Mao

Socialist personality, rejected individualism and traditional family

Experimented with communal living→ evil of family ties

Communes→ free the woman from the house- loyal to commun not family- sacrifice for the collective

Socialist Market Economy

Gov still own some businesses → mixed economy, not really fair from other countries where companies are not propped up by government

Free markets, some competition, profit incentives

Capitalism without calling it that, led to four modernizations 

Bilan - becomes important with center of exports in 2000, don't overstate its importance until the 21th century, not a superpower in 20th century 

Key terms : 

● Bretton Woods

● Yalta and Potsdam Conferences

● Iron Curtain

● Berlin Blockade and Airlift

● Containment

● Truman Doctrine

● Cominform

● COMECON

● NATO

● Warsaw Pact

• Define it

• Marshal Plan and Containment

• Causes for its emergence

• Areas of conflict - eastern europe gets swallowed by USSR 

• Conflicting ideologies of liberal capitalism vs. Soviet communism

• Reagan outspends

• Gorbachev tries to reform the Soviet Union

• Pan-Arabism

• Zionism

• Maoism

• Sino-Soviet Split