Conservation Biology Exam 4- FINAL

Resilience

ability to recover from disturbance

Ecological restoration

restoring species & ecosystems that used to persist in a habitat

Restoration ecology

the science of ecological restoration and its effects

-informs ecological restoration

Reference site

positive controls: undisturbed wilderness areas•

Unrestored sites -negative controls

Passive restoration

ability to recover on its own

Ecological assembly order

- the order in which species are placed into an ecosystem

• Must first consider trophic level

• Knowledge of organism ecology is second

Rewilding

restore (an area of land) to its natural uncultivated state (used especially with reference to the reintroduction of species of wild animal that have been driven out or exterminated).

Rehabilitation*

replacement with a different ecosystem

• Return of some ecosystem services, but not many original species

• Is this really "restoration"?

Trophic rewilding

Missing animal functional groups

Bioremediation

Organisms can be used to remove unwanted elements of ecosystems

Ex: wetland plants filtering and cleaning runoff

Biological control

organisms used to manage an undesirable species

• Ex: tamarisk leaf beetle along rivers in Western US.

Novel ecosystem

Novel ecosystems are ecosystems that as a result of human influences have changed to the extent that the biotic elements (living things such as animals, plants or bacteria) and abiotic elements (non-living things such as water, rocks and air) are almost entirely different from what they have been in a historical state of the ecosystem. Novel ecosystems are defined relative to a past state of the ecosystem and the role humans have had in changing it.

Cultural eutrophication

Cultural eutrophication occurs when human water pollution speeds up the aging process by introducing sewage, detergents, fertilizers, and other nutrient sources into the ecosystem.

Non-target source pollution

Nonpoint source pollution generally results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage, seepage or hydrologic modification. Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution, unlike pollution from industrial and sewage treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources.

Biocultural restoration

Biocultural restoration is the science and practice of restoring not only ecosystems, but also human and cultural relationships to place, such that cultures are strengthened and revitalized alongside the lands with which they are inextricably linked.

Sustainable development

Economic development that satisfies human needs for resources and employment + minimizing impact on biodiversity / ecosystems

Unsustainable development

can't continue indefinitely as it uses up its ownresources

Greenwashing

the appearance of sustainability with limited change• SD = actual change

• Example: Mine that sets aside a small area for biodiversity

• Example: Water bottle companies that promote recycling campaigns.

Conservation psychology

Conservationists must convince public about utility (public support!)

• Increased public support = allies in fight

Land trust

private, nonprofit corporation established to protect land and natural resources

Conservation easement

imits on developing, building, or subdividing property for money + lower taxes

Limited / conservation development

some development and some conservation among multiple parties

Conservation leasing

paying landowners for biodiversityprotection

Conservation banking

a landowner deliberately protects an endangered species/habitat or creates new habitat

• Landowner gets species credits that can be sold to developers for offsets

Conservation concessions

conservation organizations out bid extraction companies for the rights to "use" land - conserve it instead!

Aichi Biodiversity Targets

a list of goals to achieve sustainability• Main goal: slow/stop loss of biodiversity by reducing impact of human activities• Significant progress, but targets not yet met

Debt-for-nature swaps

Many developing nations have debts they cannot repay

1. NGO buys debt

2. NGO forgives debt in exchange for conservation activity

• E.g., The Philippines, Madagascar,Colombia, Poland, etc.

• Private contributions• Crowdfunding

• Skewed by vertebrate bias.

INGO

International NGOs (INGOs)

implement conservation directly

• Smaller funds, but oftentimes larger proportional impact

• Help fund local NGOs

REDD

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)

rewards poorer nations for preserving forests by paying them for carbon storage.

National Environment Fund

National Environment Fund (NEF) - conservation trust fund to fund NGOs and inadequately funded government programs

• Funding from WWF, World Bank, GEF, etc.

• Example: Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation.

Mainstreaming biodiversity

linking biodiversity considerations into management/development/policy plans.

1. How are restoration, restoration ecology, and conservation linked?

2. What is the first step in restoring an ecosystem?

Stop the threat

3. Be familiar with the steps in restoration (Figure 11.2; slide 5)

4. Know the characteristics that we should attempt to create in a restored site.

1. ...use natives,

2. ...contain key species functional groups,

3. ...have a physical environment suited for native species and ecosystem processes, and

4. ...be secure from outside disturbances

• Timeline: decades or centuries!

5. How do the four approaches to restoration differ? Be able to assign one of these four to a real-life example.

1. No action - too expensive, not practical, or not necessary

• May recover on its own? - passive restoration;

example: agricultural fields

• Biodiversity may still be quite different

2. Rehabilitation - replacement with a different ecosystem• Return of some ecosystem services, but not many original species

• Is this really "restoration"?

3. Partial restoration - some ecosystem services and species restored

• A focus on dominant / keystone species

4. Complete restoration - completely restoration of original species richness, ecosystem structure, and ecosystem processes

• Impossible?

6. Should restoration focus solely on plants? Why or why not?*

Focus should also be on:

• Trophic interactions

• Food webs

• Decomposers (bacteria and fungi)

• Soil invertebrates

• Herbivores

• Pollinators

• Seed dispersers.

So no, it should not be focused solely on plants. It should consider all of the listed things.

7. Why is complete restoration not always possible?

Definition - completely restoration of original species richness, ecosystem structure, and ecosystem processes• Impossible?

Once things have changed, it is nearly impossible to get them back to the way that they were.

8. What are the methods and benefits of restoration in urban areas?*

Reconciliation ecology

•Attempt to reduce intense human impact and enhance quality of life

• Drainage canals winding streams with banks of fauna

• Vacant lots native plants

• Gravel pits ponds

• Major benefits include increased...

• Pollinators

• Neighborhood pride

• Sense of community

• Property values.

• Restoring native communities over landfills is common

• 5000 active landfills in the US

• Decommissioned one scan be used for habitats with native shrubs and trees

• Ex: Fresh kills restored landfill site on StatenIsland, NY.

9. How do we restore sites using organisms?*

Some organisms can perform the

restoration themselves!

• Bacteria and fungi can help decompose organic matter

• Top carnivores can control herbivores and exert top down control (rewilding)

• Ex: Wolves in Yellowstone NP

• Missing animal functional groups(trophic rewilding)

• Ex: Oostvaarder plassen in theNetherlands.

Using ecosystem services

Organisms can be used to remove unwanted elements of ecosystems

• Bioremediation -organisms used to cleanup pollutants

• Ex: wetland plants filtering and cleaning runoff

• Biological control -organisms used to manage an undesirable species

• Ex: tamarisk leaf beetle along rivers in Western US.(A) 2006Invasive tamarisk tree

10. Know the aspects of restoring different types of ecosystems (e.g., wetlands, aquatic systems, etc.) PART 1

R E S T O R A T I O N O F S O M E M A J O RC O M M U N I T I E S : W E T L A N D S

• Many restoration projects involve wetlands

Clean Water Act and US government policy of no net loss

• Corporations that damage them must restore them or create new ones

• Common occurrence: Early success, later failure

• No monitoring or long-term management

• Subtleties of species composition, water movement, soil architecture, and site history are difficult to replicate

• Often dominated by invasives and weedy species but still provide many of the same ecosystem services

R E S T O R A T I O N O F S O M EM A J O R C O M M U N I T I E S :A Q U A T I C S Y S T E M S

• Subject to degradation by pollution, overexploitation, climate change, invasive species, etc.

• Common degradation type: cultural eutrophication

• Algae cover, high turbidity, low oxygen, fish kills, weedy species

• Solution decrease incoming nutrients

• Ex: Lake Erie.

R E S T O R A T I O N O F S O M EM A J O R C O M M U N I T I E S :A Q U A T I C S Y S T E M S

• Example: ChesapeakeBay

• Degraded due to non target source pollution from nearby residential, agricultural ,and industrial lands

• Required water treatment projects, river restoration, native grass plantings, and regrading slopes

• Poorly monitored; unknown if goals were met for many projects.

10. Know the aspects of restoring different types of ecosystems (e.g., wetlands, aquatic systems, etc.) PART 2

R E S T O R A T I O N O F S O M E M A J O RC O M M U N I T I E S : P R A I R I E S A N DF A R M L A N D S

• Ideal for restoration work:

• Species rich

• Beautiful flowers high public adoration /support

• Easily established in a few years

• Solution = shallow plowing, burning, and raking + re-introduction of native plants

• Ex: Short-grass prairie ecosystems fromDakotas to Texas• Often used for unprofitable and unsustainable agriculture

• Could switch to ecotourism, wildlife management, and low-level grazing

• Rewilding of introduced game animals to mimic megafauna?

R E S T O R A T I O N O F S O M EM A J O R C O M M U N I T I E S :T R O P I C A L D R YF O R E S T

• Northwestern Costa Rican tropical dry forests

• Much lost to agriculture and ranching -often abandoned

•Restoration solutions:

• Stopping brush fires,

• Banning logging & hunting,

• Planting natives (and exotics as biocontrol)

• Bio cultural restoration - teach biology /ecology, influencing perception of restoration, area, and importance of biodiversity

• Estimated to take 200 - 500 years!

11. What is the difference between economic development and economic growth? Which does sustainable development promote?

Economic development: Increases in efficiency, organization, and distribution of resources but not necessarily resource consumption

Economic Growth: Material increases in the amount of resource consumption (unsustainable).

12. How is sustainable development linked to social justice?*

Ensures everyone benefits

• Including poor and indigenous

• As SD increases, social justice increases quality of life, corporate profits, human health, and environmental conditions.

13. At what level do most sustainable development activities take place?

The local level

14. How is sustainable development conducted at the local level?

Most efforts to preserve biodiversity /ecosystems begin local

• Local governments pass laws to provide protection + some development

• Local clean water / air regulations are stricter than national laws

• Local endangered species regulations are laxer than national laws.

• Restrictions often exist for...

• When / where hunting / fishing can occur,

• Size,

• Number,

• Species,

• Types of weapons,

• Types of traps, and

• Ages of participants

• Licensing, permits, and warden patrols.

• Land use laws include restrictions on:

• Vehicles

• Visitation

• Camping / campfire•

Zoning

• Buildings (environmental impact statements).

• Parks & nature reserve scan be designated by local governments

• Conservationists must convince public about utility (public support!)

• Increased public support allies in fight

• Part of conservation psychology.

15. What are the strategies of land trusts? Be able to determine the strategies that a land trust uses if given a real-life example.

Main:

1. Purchase land transfer land to local governments and organizations who will protect it

2. Conservation easement limits on developing, building, or subdividing property for money + lower taxes

3. Purchase and sell land to conservation-minded owners with conservation easement

4. Limited development some development and some conservation among multiple parties.

Other:

1. Conservation leasing - paying landowners for biodiversity protection

2. Conservation banking - a landowner deliberately protects an endangered species/habitat or creates new habitat

• Landowner gets species credits that can be sold to developers for offsets

3. Payments for ecosystem services (PES) - landowner paid for allowing ecosystem to provide services

4. Conservation concessions - conservation organizations outbid extraction companies for the rights to "use" land - conserve it instead!

16. What are the strategies used by governments and NGOs for sustainable development?

• International NGOs (INGOs)implement conservation directly• Smaller funds, but oftentimes larger proportional impact

• Help fund local NGOs

• National Environment Fund (NEF) -conservation trust fund to fundNGOs and inadequately funded government programs

• Funding from WWF, World Bank, GEF ,etc.

• Debt-for-nature swaps• Many developing nations have debts they cannot repay1. NGO buys debt

2. NGO forgives debt in exchange for conservation activity

• E.g., The Philippines, Madagascar,Colombia, Poland, etc.

• Private contributions

• Crowdfunding

• Skewed by vertebrate bias.

17. How is sustainable development conducted at the national level?

• Debt-for-nature swaps

• Many developing nations have debts they cannot repay

1. NGO buys debt

2. NGO forgives debt in exchange for conservation activity

• E.g., The Philippines, Madagascar,Colombia, Poland, etc.

• Private contributions

• Crowdfunding

• Skewed by vertebrate bias.

• Sometimes, national governments don't seem to care about conservation

• Degazettement for extraction

• Corruption.

18. Why was the Earth Summit (1992) so monumental to conservation?

• Increasing environment protection+ SD in less-wealthy countries

• Produced four documents that currently shape policy:

1. The Rio Declaration - SD and environmental legislation promoted; "polluter pays"policy

2. UNFCCC - reduce CO2 / other greenhouse gas emissions

• First implementation: KyotoProtocol (2005)• Kyoto protocol superseded by theParis Agreement (2016).

3. CBD - Three objectives:

A. Protect biodiversity

B. Protect sustainably

C. Prevent biopiracy

• Aichi Biodiversity Targets - a list of goals to achieve sustainability

• Main goal: slow/stop loss of biodiversity by reducing impact of human activities

• Significant progress, but targets not yet met

4. Agenda 21 - a description of government policies that should be implemented to achieve SD.

19. Know the four documents that shaped, and continue to shape, policy that came out of the Earth Summit.*

1. The Rio Declaration - SD and environmental legislation promoted; "polluter pays"policy

2. UNFCCC - reduce CO2 / other greenhouse gas emissions

• First implementation: KyotoProtocol (2005)• Kyoto protocol superseded by theParis Agreement (2016).

3. CBD - Three objectives:

A. Protect biodiversity

B. Protect sustainably

C. Prevent biopiracy

• Aichi Biodiversity Targets - a list of goals to achieve sustainability

• Main goal: slow/stop loss of biodiversity by reducing impact of human activities

• Significant progress, but targets not yet met

4. Agenda 21 - a description of government policies that should be implemented to achieve SD.

20. Know the basics about each international agreement that we discussed (i.e., what it protects).*

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)- Promotes conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)- Ensures that trade in animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

Convention of the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals- Provides guidelines for the conservation and sustainable use of migrating animals throughout their ranges.

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (RCoW)- (1971) - halt destruction of wetlands!

• Recognizes cultural, economic, ecological, scientific, and recreational value

International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture- Promotes the conservation of plant genetic resources and the equitable sharing of the benefits that arise from them.

World Heritage Convention -protect cultural / natural areas

• UN Foundation provides funding for protection•

Examples: Serengeti NationalPark (Tanzania), Sinharaja ForestReserve (Sri Lanka), Iguacu Falls(Brazil), etc.

UNESCO's World Network of BiosphereReserves (1971)• In 2019, US withdrew from UNESCO citing "anti-Israel bias"; currently attempting to rejoin

Other facets of international agreements:

• Parks between borders can be jointly managed and be a source of migration, a corridor, and a source of reconciliation

•Some areas still desperately need protection via international treaty such as the pelagic zone of the ocean.

21. How is conservation funded on an international scale? Which organizations are the major players?

• Biodiversity and ecosystem services would amount to $24 trillion in costs

• Estimated to cost $150 - $440 billion to adequately protect this biodiversity and these services

• We spend ~$52 billion

• (US spends $686 billion/year on its military).

Developed countries pay into yearly official development assistance (ODA) some would go to conservation

• Just 0.7% of GDP from developed nations by 2000! In2000, total contribution was done by:

• Luxembourg, Sweden, Norway,Denmark, UK, UAE, and Turkey

• Canada = 0.37%; US = 0.18%

• Goes to NSF, USFWS,Smithsonian Institute, etc.

2030 Agenda for SustainableDevelopment had this specific goal:

• "Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems."

• Total funding has increased, but proportions vary by country and changes when leadership changes...

Much of conservation funding channeled through the WorldBank and the GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF)

• GEF designed to channel money from developed to developing countries for conservation

• World Bank funds many, many projects - only some of which are for conservation; some are perverse subsidies...

World Bank recently teamed up with World Wildlife Federation (WWF)to form Forest Alliance

• Protects and manages forests worldwide

• Partnership also formed Forest Carbon Partnership Facility

• Developed nations can offset greenhouse gas emissions by purchasing carbon credits.

• International NGOs (INGOs) implement conservation directly

• Smaller funds, but oftentimes larger proportional impact

• Help fund local NGOs

• Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) rewards poorer nations for preserving forests by paying them for carbon storage.

22. Be able to explain the solutions to each of the 11 major current conservation problems.* PART 1

1.Most species remain undescribed, and most ecosystems remain unmonitored

•Train more scientists / amateurs!

•Developing countries

•Community science is helpful (Ex: Monarch butterfly)

•Increase accessibility of biodiversity data

•Increase funding!

2. Many issues have global scale ,making conservation action difficult; international agreements are difficult to enforce

• Encourage participation!

• More transnational parks

• Certification programs

• Accountability

• Conservationists must make known the link between sustainable actions and increases in biodiversity.

3. Developing countries want to protect their biodiversity but face increasing pressure to develop natural resources for income

• Continue monetary support through international agreements

• Especially for PAs and conservationist training!

• Address economic and social problems (e.g., poverty and armed conflicts).

4. Economic analyses of damaging environmental projects are often overly positive; depend on perverse subsidies and don't take ecosystem services into account

• CBAs must be done more accurately

• Public must have some say

• More "polluter pays" principle

• Eliminate perverse subsidies redirect money to conservation.

5.Disadvantaged people often destroy biodiversity because they are just trying to survive

•Include/increase local recruitment and employment

•Increase support for social justice and economic equality

•Increase use of certification programs

•Conservation projects can also help local economies.

22. Be able to explain the solutions to each of the 11 major current conservation problems.* PART 2

6. Governments often make decisions about PAs without public input; therefore, public support is low

• Environmental impact statements and economic forecasts should be made public

• Increase transparency

• Increase sharing of management decisions.

7.Revenue, activities, and research in parks may not directly benefit the local people

•Train locals in the management / monitoring of park

•Ecotourism can benefit conservation and locals

•Park revenues should fund local schools, clinics, roads, etc.

8. National parks and PAs often have inadequate budgets to pay for conservation

• Increase funding by...

• Raising admission rates

• Cost of lodging• Cost of meals

• Including concessions.

9. Many endangered species / ecosystems exist in non-PAs; their existence often seen as burden to short-term profits

• Land leases should include "maintenance of health" clause

• Eliminate perverse subsidies

• Increase education to private landowners

• Increase mainstreaming biodiversity - linking biodiversity considerations into management/development/policy plans.

10.Governments are often inefficient, causing them to be slow and ineffective at conservation

•NGOs and citizen groups are most effective more support!•Increase education of public and encourage action

•Local actionnational action.

11. Many businesses, banks, and governments remain uninterested / unresponsive to conservation issues

• Willingness increases with...

• Education of benefits

• Strong public support

• Lobbying (e.g., Sierra Club)

• Petitions, letter-writing, economic boycotts can be responses to inaction

23. Ideally, what characteristics must a conservation biologist have to be as effective as possible?*

•Conservation biologists must be:

•Effective educators,

•Effective leaders, and

•Effective motivators

•Conservation biologists should:

•Educate a broad array of people,

•Convey a positive message, and

•Give examples of successes.

24. What are some of the tools that conservationists may use to achieve their goals?*

• Reach a wider audience by using more media outlets (e.g., social media)

• Speaking to the public, writing editorials, blogs, speaking on the radio, TV, and other mass media

• Scientific / technical publications have a very small audience

• Billions watch YouTube / TikTok videos

• Movies

• Blackfish (2013) legislation protecting whales, action by SeaWorld

• Education by NGOs

• Example: Bat Conservation International and the bats in Austin, TX.

• Conservation biologists should be politically active leaders and should participate in politics / social movements

• Step 1: Joining conservation organizations / political parties to strengthen their conservation efforts from the inside

• Step 2: Mastering methods of legal / political processes

• Step 3: Form alliances with environmental lawyers, citizen groups, and politicians to influence policy

• Example: Ikh Nart Nature Reserve, Mongolia.

•Conservation biologists should be effective translators

•Take scientific data and turn it into legislation, policy, and management actions•Unbiased datapolitical action

•Must speak to the public about policies, programs, and action.

• Conservation biologists should be effective motivators

• Get people to support conservation

• Must tie biodiversity conservation with family health, community health, economic sustainability, and quality of life

• Motivation of business leaders and politicians is especially important.

Conservation biologists must be effective managers and practitioners of conservation projects

• Must be willing to put in the work, get dirty, and engage with the public

• Must be knowledgeable about their systems and education others about it.