CLAS 250 Exam 2 - TAMU Lake

aulos

pipe with holes and a reed. Usually 2 were played simultaneously. Probably used double reeds. Spartans used them to keep soldiers and rowers on beat.

cithara/lyre

large and ornate instrument employed by professional rhapsodes for performances at festivals. Often made out of turtle shell

tetrachord

series of four notes spanning an interval of a four. Could be conjunct (shared note) or disjunct (separated by a tone)

3 types: enharmonic, chromatic, diatonic

Gnomon

part of a sundial that casts a shadow. Stick in the ground

Uses of gnomon

Measuring local noon (the time of day when the shadow of a gnomon is shortest).

Measuring true north (the direction in which the shortest shadow of a vertical gnomon points).

Measuring the summer solstice (the time when the sun is at its highest altitude at local noon).

Measuring the winter solstice (the time when the sun is at its lowest altitude at local noon).

Measuring the equinoxes (the shadow plot of a gnomon will be a straight line).

Telling time during the day.

solstice

astronomical event that occurs twice each year as the Sun reaches its highest or lowest excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere

Equinox

the time or date (twice each year) at which the sun crosses the celestial equator, when day and night are of equal length

Dithyramb

a choral hymn performed in honor of Dionysus

City/Greater Dionysia

festival to the god Dionysus that took place over 4-5 days in late March/early April. Preliminaries: the proagon (introduction of the playwrights and performers) and the 'Introduction' (eisagoge) of the cult statue of Dionysus.

Day 1: The Procession (pompe), a large parade that ended in the sacred precinct of Dionysus, followed by the dithyramb contests.

Days 2-5: five comedies were presented, followed by 3 tragic triologies (each capped by a satyr play). A separate day was devoted to each trilogy/tetralogy.

On the last day the winners were proclaimed and prizes were given out.

Philoctetes (Characters)

Odysseus (King of Ithaca and one of the Greek generals in Troy)

Neoptolemos (Son of Achilles)

Philoctetes (A Greek soldier)

Merchant

Herakles (The ancient hero, now a demi-god)

Scout (Silent)

Chorus of the sailors (Under Neoptolemos' command)

Philoctetes (Setting)

Day

On the island Lemnos

Philoctetes (Plot)

Odysseus and Neoptolemus arrive outside of Philoctetes's cave. Odysseus persuades Neoptolemus to trick Philoctetes into giving him his bow.

The chorus (Neoptolemus's crew) ask Neoptolemus for instruction and ponders Philoctetes' life on Lemnos.

Neoptolemus meets Philoctetes and tells him a fictitious story about how he was denied the arms of his father by Odysseus and left Troy as a result. A disguised sailor appears and warns them that Odysseus is coming.

The chorus sings of the plight of Neoptolemus.

Philoctetes is struck with pain three times and falls asleep after giving Neoptolemus the bow.

The chorus advises Neoptolemus to take the bow.

Philoctetes awakes and Neoptolemus tells him the truth. Odysseus enters and fails to persuade Philoctetes to go with them. Neoptolemus leaves the chorus with Philoctetes.

Dialogue between Philoctetes and the chorus.

Neoptolemus and Odysseus return. Neoptolemus gives the bow back to Philoctetes. As they prepare to sail for Greece Heracles appears and persuades Philoctetes to go to Troy.

Aristophanes

(ca. 460/450-386 BC) was the leading author of Old Attic Comedy.

Eleven of his plays are extant; fragments of many others survive.

His plays are characterized by heavy satire, parody, and exaggeration.

He targeted politicians (Cleon), natural philosophers (Socrates), and literary figures (Euripides) among others.

Clouds (Characters)

STREPSIADES: a middle-aged Athenian

PHEIDIPPIDES: a young Athenian, son of Strepsiades XANTHIAS: a slave serving Strepsiades

STUDENT: one of Socrates' pupils in the Thinkery SOCRATES: chief teacher in the Thinkery

CHORUS OF CLOUDS

THE BETTER ARGUMENT: an older man

THE WORSE ARGUMENT: a young man

PASIAS: one of Strepsiades' creditors

WITNESS: a friend of Pasias

AMYNIAS: one of Strepsiades' creditors

STUDENTS OF SOCRATES

Clouds (Plot)

Streipedes and his son are deep in debt

Phepiddes, the son, spends all of his money on horses and horse racing

They both go to Socrates' Thinkery to learn how to get out of debt

They get out of debt

Phepiiddes uses the arguments against his own father

Streipeds burns down the Thinkery

Trireme

- was a fast, narrow warship with three banks of oars.

- typically carried 170 rowers, as well as a small contingent of marines and sailors.

- Rowers were divided into three groups: thalamites, zygites, and thranites

- could sail on the open water, but was more of a specialized fighting ship, and typically skirted the coast.

- Shore camps were necessary to maintain the crews

- weapon was the heavy bronze ram mounted on the prow. The stern and sides of the ship were vulnerable to attack

Liturgy

Compulsory services to the state required of citizens who met a certain wealth qualification (usually 3-4 talents)

Trierarchy

Most burdensome liturgy; the obligation to serve as commander of a warship and defray part of its costs for a year

Choregia

maintenance of the choir members at the theater for dramatic competitions

Phalanx

725-675 BC the square formation the hoplites battled in. The front was guarded by the shields and spears jutted out in front

Hoplite and hoplite panoply

- The classical hoplite carried the 'panoply': bronze greaves, bronze breastplate, wooden shield, bronze helmet with horsehair crest, iron-tipped spear, and iron short sword.

- The panoply had notable disadvantages: it was heavy, hot, uncomfortable, and impeded maneuverability.

Battle of Leuctra

In 371BC, the Theban general Epaminondas defeated the Spartans at this battle. An invasion of the Peloponnese followed

Senate

Part of Republican gov; probably began as an ad hoc advisory body to the Roman kings.

In the Republic it was composed of ex-magistrates who met a certain wealth qualification. The roll of the Senate was maintained by the censors.

The senate was perhaps the most important body in the Roman Republic, even though it had no legislative power.

The Senate did not pass laws, but senatus consulta, "decrees of the Senate" or recommendations.

Governed foreign relations and the purse strings

Curiate Assembly

A Roman voting assembly; (comitia curiata): the oldest assembly, it was composed of 30 curiae and served to ratify grants of imperium.

Originally a way of electing the roman king; relatively unimportant

Imperium- power, or supreme executive power. Never really defined but it meant supreme;ratify the laws; switch from patrician to plebeian; no longer really met during republic

Centuriate Assembly

Roman Voting Assembly; (comitia centuriata): composed of 193 centuries based on wealth, it elected senior magistrates

Century- military units

Allocated based on wealth classification

18 horsemen= wealthiest

Not an equal division of roman citizens

70 footmen= next level of wealth

Rigged for the wealthy to control elections. Sense of oligarchy; had lots of power at first

Tribal Assembly of the Plebs

Roman Voting Assemby; only one with any power in the late republic; (comitia plebis tributa): organized into 35 tribes, this exclusively plebeian assembly elected 10 tribunes every year and 2 plebeian aediles; its decisions (plebiscites) were binding on all Romans after the lex hortensia of 287 BC.

Created because of secession of plebeians. People formed into tribes.

Tribunes had power of veto over any other assembly

Passed legislation, applicable only to Plebeians until 287 BC

In late republic, only the tribal assembly had important legislative functions

Tribal Assembly of the People

(comitia populi tributa): elected quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.

Quaestor

Roman magistrate; the first step on the cursus honorum and a prerequisite for sitting in the Senate, were financial officials.

Aedile

Roman magistrate; 2 curule and 2 plebeian aediles oversaw games, markets, and urban affairs.

Praetor

there were eight by the late Republic; they served military and judicial functions and possessed imperium.

Consul

the highest office at Rome, both possessed imperium (twice as much as praetors).

Censor

2 were elected every five years to conduct a census and correct the role of the Senate.

Tribune of the plebs

10 were elected and held the power of veto (intercessio).

Cursus honorum

at every level more age and experience were required, and there were fewer offices available

Fasces

a bundle of rods with a projecting ax blade, carried by a lictor as a symbol of a magistrate's power.

Mos moiram

custom of the ancestors

Tiberius Gracchus

elected tribune in 133 and sought to push through a land reform bill.

Roman public land (ager publicus) was to be restricted to 500 iugera (300 acres) per person. Those in violation would have the land confiscated, and it would be redistributed to the landless.

Rather than seeking the consent of the Senate, he took the bill directly before the Tribal Assembly of the Plebs.

He engineered the deposition of a refractory colleague and had the bill passed.

Gracchus's Land Bill

When the Senate refused to fund the work of the land commissioners, he proposed they use money left to Rome by King Attalus of Pergamum.

He stood for the tribunate in 132 BC.

was murdered with 300 of his followers by a Senatorial mob.

His methods had violated the core principles of the mos maiorum ("ancestral custom").

Gaius Sempronius Gracchus

Tiberius's brother served as tribune in 123 and 122 BC.

Like a modern day politician

He introduce a whole raft of legislation intended to curry favor with the lower classes and with the equites.

He was undermined by M. Livius Drusus and lost support among the people.

In 121 BC the Senate passed the senatus consultum ultimum after a slave of one of the consuls was killed by his supporters.

He was murdered in street fighting.

Marius

- A minor plebeian politician from Arpinum, served as praetor in 115 but had himself elected consul in 107 to deal with the Jugurthine War in North Africa.

Has himself sent back.

- was elected consul seven times, violating the mos maiorum.

- To fight two German tribes that threatened Rome, he enacted sweeping military reforms.

- Reorganizes the Roman Army

Most importantly, he filled the army with capite censi, landless men who looked to him as their patron.

Fills up his army with the poor. Enables them with the ability to fight with the money of the state.

These people looked to him for their future. They view military service as a way to make a living for themselves.

Politicizes Roman military.

He was a great general, but not a great politician.

- retired from politics in 100 BC, leaving an opening for a disgruntled former lieutenant, Sulla.

Capite censi

landless men

Sulla

L. Cornelius Sulla had served as quaestor for Marius in Africa and had engineered the capture of Jugurtha.

In 91 BC Rome's Italian allies revolted, demanding full citizenship (the Social War). Sulla, as propraetor, took command of Roman forces in southern Italy.

As a reward for his success in the Social War, Sulla was elected consul for 88 and given command of Roman troops by the Senate to deal with the revolt of King Mithridates VI of Pontus.

Marius used a tribune, Publius Sulpicius,to have the Asian command voted to him.

Sulla then marched on Rome with six legions.

Brought the troops into Rome to attack another politician.

Marius escaped to North Africa. Raised his own armies and attacked Rome and destroyed Sulla's supporters.

Sulla then goes back to Rome after making peace with Asia.

Marius dies

Sulla re-enters Rome in 83 BC and carries out a massacre in the street.

Posts lists

Sulla's Dictatorship

Sulla took Rome, massacred Marius's supporters, and then departed for Asia.

Marius escaped to Africa, then returned to Rome with L. Cornelius Cinna and captured the city.

Sulla made peace with Mithridates, returned to Italy in 83 BC, and defeated his opponents.

Upon entering Rome, Sulla carried out another, much bloodier massacre, via proscription.

Proscription is the list of people and he would pay people for killing them

He had himself appointed dictator and issued new laws limiting the power of the tribunate.

Sulla retired in 79 BC and died a year later.

Pompey the Great

Member of first Triumvirate; Gnaeus Pompeius first made a name for himself by raising his own army and joining Sulla in 83 BC.

He was given an unprecedented grant of propraetorial imperium to deal with the revolt of Lepidus, despite never having held a magistracy.

After defeating the revolt of Sertorius in Spain (77-72 BC) he mopped up the remnants of the slave armies that had revolted under Spartacus.

Pompey came into conflict with M. Licinius Crassus, the richest man in Rome, who had defeated Spartacus.

Pompey and Crassus used their armies to extort consulships for the year 70 BC

Pompey became chief man of the Roman state in the 60's.

In 67 BC a pliable tribune proposed that he be given imperium infinitum to deal with pirates that infested the Mediterranean.

When he finished destroying the pirates, Pompey was granted further imperium to deal with King Mithridates VI of Pontus.

Pompey spent four years in the East and returned to Rome in 62 BC.

Meanwhile, Crassus backed Gaius Julius Caesar as a counterweight to Pompey.

M. Licinius Crassus

Member of first Triumvirate; The richest man in Rome, who had defeated Spartacus and came into conflict with Pompey. Pompey and Crassus used their armies to extort consulships for the year 70 BC. Backed Gaius Julius Caesar as a counterweight to Pompey.

Julius Caesar

Member of first Triumvirate; Emerged as sole ruler of Rome after dissolution of First Triumvirate. gifted orator

Normal rise up the system

- argued for mercy in catiline rebellion

- consul in 59 BC

- made himself proconsul over Gaul

- marched on Rome in 49 BC

First Triumvirate

Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus; driven together by the opposition of Cato; ruled for nearly a decade basically through puppets in Rome

Gaius Octavianus

Great-Nephew of Julius Caesar; adopted son and heir; met with bad reception from Antony; marched on Rome; member of second Triumvirate

Marcus Antonius

Caesar's right hand man; unhappy about Octavian's placement; exploited popular sentiment against Cassius and Brutus; departed for Cisalpine Gaul; dislodged Brutus; raised money in Asia Minor; acknowledged his children by Cleopatra and sent Octavia back to Roma; member of 2nd Triumvirate

auctoritas

informal power based on prestige, influence and moral authority. Augustus ruled with this type of power

Philip of Macedon (Philip II)

When his brother Perdiccas III was killed in battle against the Illyrians, the council chose this man to succeed him in 359 BC. He has many troubles upon gaining the throne (poorly disciplined army, pretenders looking to be kings, and neighboring countries). He is also the father of Alexander. Married Illyrian Princess Audata, as well as Molossian princess Olympias (mother of Alexander). During a Persian campaign, seeking Macedonian support, he married Cleopatra. He is assassinated in 336 BC at the wedding feast of his daughter.

Battle of Chaeronea

338 BC, Philip defeats the Greek Alliance at Boeotia and founds the League of Corinth. This became the front of his political domination of Greece. At the second meeting, he planned for a Panhellenic invasion of Persia. This marked the end of Greek autonomy and ended the constant fighting among Greek city-states.

League of Corinth

Philip brought together the city-states of Greece with this league, which was formed in 338 BC. He did not disband democracy in Athens. Members had to swear loyalty to Philip. (Sparta stayed out of the League but because of lowered population, would never again have much power)

Alexander the Great

son of Philip and Olympias (4th wife). He was the successor until Philip married Macedonian Princess Cleopatra, which disinherited the throne from him. After Cleopatra had borne no son for Philip, he became successor again. In 336 BC became King. 335 BC the Archon of Thessaly and leader of the Corinthian League. Thebes had revolted but he marched into the city and captured it, destroying most of the city and killing and selling the inhabitants into slavery. Rest of Greece cowered into submission. With his death, he left no heirs and this began the Hellenistic Era in 323

Hellenistic Era

Starts near 323 BC with the death of Alexander the Great. This period saw the emergence of new kingship. Combined the Greece culture with the surrounding areas like Macedonia, Asia Minor, and Egypt.

Hellenistic Dynasties

Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonia and part of Greece. Seleucid ruled Syria, Macedonia, and Asia Minor. Ptolemies ruled Egypt. All of these would eventually succumb to the power of Rome with the defeat of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony in 31 BC, ending the Hellenistic Era.

Arrian

the Author of Anabasis of Alexander (ca. 86-180 AD) His history of Alexander was the widest read, and arguably the most complete. He had used sources from Callisthenes (nephew of Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander), and Aristobulus, both of which are now lost.

Aeneas

Fled Troy when it fell. After arriving in Italy, he allies with King Latinus and marries Lavinia, daughter of Latinus. Lavinia had been promised to Turnus, King of Rutuli, so that sparks a war. He and his company prevail over Turnus and the Rutulians, He and his forces become the progenitors of the Roman Race. The canonical story is told in the Aeneid of Virgil (70-19 BC)

Romulus

Mythical founder of City of Rome; Numitor, king of Alba Longa, had a daughter, Rhea Silvia, who was a Vestal Virgin but was raped by Mars. She gave birth to twins Romulus and Remus. Amulius had disposed of Numitor and ordered the twins be exposed. The twins were found and taken care of by a wolf and raised by a herdsman. Romulus and Remus killed Amulius and went on to found Rome. Romulus kills Remus.

Roman Monarchy

753 BC (artificial date) starting with Romulus. There were supposedly six more Kings after Romulus. The last Roman king is Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud) who was expelled by aristocrats led by L. Junius Brutus in 509 BC. This is the year a republican constitution was also drawn up

Rape of the Sabine Women

(ca 750 BC) Looking to increase the population of his city, Romulus invited the Sabines to a religious festival were he had his men take the unmarried Sabine women. This sparked a battle, and the Sabine women not wanting their new husbands and Sabine brothers to die, pleaded for them to stop. This caused the two groups to merge.

Lucretia

An upper-class woman who was raped by Tarquin the Proud's son. She committed suicide after identifying her rapist. She became the ideal for Roman women: chaste, courageous, ready to die before being seen as an immoral woman. This sparked Tarquin's expulsion, justifying it by saying that Tarquin allowed such abuses of power such as the rape.

Livy

wrote about the monarchy (From the Foundation of the City), though very late. Wrote in first century BC and the information is dubious.

Conflict/Struggle of the Orders

5th/4th centuries BC. The struggles between patricians and plebeians creates political and economic turmoil. The patricians were composed of a small group of aristocratic families. To obtain redress for their grievances, the plebeians established their own assembly. The first secession in 494 BC won tribunes for the plebs. The final secession in 287 BC created the lex hortensia, which meant that through assembly, the plebs could create laws that were binding to all of the Roman people.

Twelve Tables

The earliest written code of Roman law. Enacted between 451 and 449 BC. Although patricians banned intermarriage between the classes, the set laws disallowed for the magistrates to create laws on the spot for their best interests. Years later it became a national symbol of commitment to legal justice.

What is the smallest interval that Aristoxenus believed the human ear was capable of detecting?

the apotome, which was approximately one-fourth of a tone.

What is a tetrachord? What intervals made up a diatonic tetrachord? What was the difference between disjunct and conjunct tetrachords?

A tetrachord is a series of four notes. A diatonic tetrachord was made up of a sequence of four notes, consisting of two whole-tone intervals and one semitone interval. Disjunct tetrachords had the two whole-tone intervals separated by a tone, while conjunct tetrachords had the two whole-tone intervals separated by a semitone.

How did chromatic and enharmonic tetrachords differ from the diatonic tetrachord?

Chromatic tetrachords had one semitone and two intervals smaller than a whole tone, while enharmonic tetrachords had one interval smaller than a semitone and two intervals larger than a whole tone. These tetrachords were used to provide additional notes for melodies that could not be played using the diatonic tetrachord.

Why have the people of Thebes assembled before the palace at the beginning of the play.

The people of Thebes have assembled before the palace to seek Oedipus' help in ending the plague that has befallen their city.

What report does Creon bring back from Delphi?

Creon reports that the oracle of Delphi has revealed that the plague in Thebes is the result of a pollution that has been left unavenged. The killer of the previous king, Laius, is still at large, and until he is brought to justice, the plague will continue.

Why is Teiresias reluctant to divulge the truth to Oedipus? What does Oedipus accuse him of?

Teiresias is reluctant to divulge the truth to Oedipus because he knows that it will bring great suffering to the king. Oedipus accuses him of being involved in a plot with Creon to overthrow him.

What is the key piece of information that finally reveals the truth to Jocasta?

the description of Laius' murder and the circumstances surrounding it. When Oedipus questions a shepherd who witnessed the event, Jocasta realizes that Oedipus is her son and that she has been married to him.

Why does Oedipus blind himself at the end of the play?

Oedipus blinds himself at the end of the play because he cannot bear to look upon the horrors that he has committed. He also believes that he should be punished for his actions and that his blindness will be a fitting penalty.

At the beginning of the play, why is Menedemus tormenting himself?

At the beginning of the play, Menedemus is tormenting himself because his son Clinia has fled Greece in order to avoid his father's harsh behavior towards him.

How is Chremes characterized?

Chremes is characterized as a kindly old man who is sympathetic to the plight of Clinia and willing to help him.

What ruse does Syrus devise to get Bacchis into Chremes's house?

Syrus devises a ruse to get Bacchis into Chremes's house by pretending that she is a friend of Sostrata's daughter Antiphila, and that she has come to visit her.

What did Sostrata do with the baby girl Antiphila?

Sostrata gave the baby girl Antiphila to another woman to raise as her own daughter, in order to spare her from the shame of being born out of wedlock.

What does Chremes provide as a dowry for his daughter? Why?

Chremes provides a dowry of ten talents for his daughter, in order to ensure that she will be able to marry well and have a comfortable life. He does this because he loves his daughter and wants her to be happy, and because he believes that it is his duty as a father to provide for her.

What offensive weapons did the Greek hoplite carry with him?

The Greek hoplite carried a spear, a sword, and a large round shield called a hoplon.

How effective were missile weapons (i.e., arrows and sling bullets) against a hoplite phalanx?

Missile weapons were generally ineffective against a hoplite phalanx, as the shield wall provided significant protection against them.

What was the purpose of a butt-spike (sauroter)?

The butt-spike (sauroter) was a metal spike attached to the bottom end of the spear shaft, used as a secondary weapon for striking opponents.

Why were halberds, slashing swords, and axes inappropriate for fighting in a phalanx?

were inappropriate for fighting in a phalanx because they required more room to swing and could not be used effectively in the close quarters of the phalanx.

Where did battles between hoplite phalanxes tend to take place?

Battles between hoplite phalanxes tended to take place in open fields or on flat terrain.

How deep was a typical phalanx? What advantage was to be gained from increasing its depth?

A typical phalanx was eight men deep, but increasing its depth provided greater pushing power, making it more difficult for the opposing phalanx to break through.

What direction did phalanxes tend to move in? Why?

Phalanxes tended to move forward in a straight line, as this was the most effective way to maintain the cohesion of the shield wall.

What was the othismos?

The othismos was the final push that decided the outcome of the battle, as one phalanx would try to break through the opposing phalanx by pushing them back.

What factors were responsible for the generally low casualty rate of hoplite battles?

The low casualty rate of hoplite battles was due to the defensive nature of the phalanx, which provided significant protection to the soldiers.

What does Lazenby say the single most important factor was in deciding the outcome of a hoplite battle?

According to Lazenby, the single most important factor in deciding the outcome of a hoplite battle was the cohesion of the phalanx, as a tightly-knit shield wall was difficult for the opposing phalanx to break through.

Who was Alexander's most famous teacher?

Alexander's most famous teacher was Aristotle.

What incident at the banquet celebrating the marriage of Philip and Cleopatra provoked Alexander and Olympias to leave Macedonia?

At the banquet celebrating the marriage of Philip and Cleopatra, Philip's new wife's uncle, Attalus, insulted Alexander's mother, Olympias, which provoked Alexander and Olympias to leave Macedonia.

What declaration about Alexander did the Oracle of Ammon make?

The Oracle of Ammon declared that Alexander was the son of Zeus.

What was the result of the Battle of Gaugamela?

The result of the Battle of Gaugamela was a decisive victory for Alexander over the Persian king Darius III.

Who was the first of Alexander's Macedonian friends and companions to be executed? Why?

The first of Alexander's Macedonian friends and companions to be executed was Philotas, who was accused of conspiracy to assassinate Alexander.

Whom did Rhoxane kill after Alexander's death? Why?

After Alexander's death, Rhoxane killed Alexander's second wife, Stateira II, and her sister, as well as their children, possibly to eliminate potential rivals to her own children's claims to the throne.

When did the Greek calendar year begin?

The Greek calendar year began in the summer, specifically with the first new moon after the summer solstice.

In the Classical period Athens maintained two different calendars, the Festival or Archon's Calendar, and the Prytany or Bouleutic or Political Calendar. What was the difference between the two?

The Festival or Archon's Calendar was used for religious festivals and events, while the Prytany or Bouleutic or Political Calendar was used for administrative purposes, such as scheduling meetings of the Boule or Council.

The seasonal calendar was independent of any religious or political considerations and relied wholly on the observation of astronomical phenomena. What were the most important indicators of the time of year in the seasonal calendar?

The most important indicators of the time of year in the seasonal calendar were the solstices and equinoxes, as well as the phases of the moon.

What was intercalation? Why was it necessary (we will discuss this in class if you cannot find the answer)?

Intercalation was the addition of an extra month to the calendar to keep it aligned with the solar year. It was necessary because the lunar year (based on the phases of the moon) is about 11 days shorter than the solar year (based on the seasons).

What was the Metonic Cycle? What problem was it intended to solve?

The Metonic Cycle was a 19-year cycle that synchronized the lunar and solar calendars. It was intended to solve the problem of the misalignment between the lunar and solar years, which caused the dates of the festivals to shift over time. The Metonic Cycle added seven intercalary months over the 19-year period to keep the lunar calendar in sync with the solar calendar.

What was unique about Rome's citizenship policy in its early days?

In Rome's early days, citizenship was only granted to those who were born from both parents who were Roman citizens.

What was the fundamental difference between patricians and plebeians?

Patricians were members of the aristocracy, who were wealthy and politically powerful, and claimed descent from the city's founders. Plebeians, on the other hand, were common people who did not have access to political power or the privileges enjoyed by the patricians.