apeuro unit 4

Geocentrism

It is the theory that Earth is the center of the universe with the sun, moon, other planets, and stars revolving around it.

Heliocentrism

The idea of a sun-centered universe where the motion of the sun results from the Earth's spin on its axis and orbit around the sun.

Paracelsus

Key challenger to Galen's ideas; used experiments to develop a theory of disease based on chemical imbalances in organs.

Andreas Vesalius

Challenged Galen's ideas through human dissection; wrote On the Fabric of the Human Body.

Johannes Kepler

Built upon Copernicus's works; discovered elliptical planetary orbits supporting the heliocentric model.

Isaac Newton

Unified the works of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo; discovered the universal law of gravitation in Principia.

Copernicus

Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated the heliocentric model of the universe.

Galileo Galilei

Italian astronomer who used the telescope to study planets and published The Starry Messenger.

William Harvey

Fixed Galen's ideas on the circulatory system, showing blood circulation from the heart.

Galen

Greek physician who theorized the four humors and studied anatomy through animal dissection.

Francis Bacon

Developed the inductive method; believed experimentation would reveal universal principles.

Rene Descartes

Developed the deductive method; began by doubting all authority and used logic to reach truths.

Montesquieu

French thinker who developed the idea of separation of powers in government.

Philosophes

Thinkers and writers who created Enlightenment ideas and proposed real societal solutions.

The Spirit of the Laws

Montesquieu's study of comparative law and political theory promoting liberty and reform.

Cesare Beccaria's On Crimes and Punishments

Treatise calling for rational criminal justice reform and ending torture.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Eighteenth-century British writer and advocate of women's rights.

Marquis de Condorcet

Advocated women's rights and equal education and political rights.

Coffeehouses

New institutions where Enlightenment ideas spread and political discussions took place.

Academies

Noble- or royal-sponsored groups promoting knowledge in science, technology, and the arts.

Newspapers

Aimed to collect information and educate citizens, important for democracy.

Masonic lodges

Secret fraternal organizations adopting ancient rituals unrelated to Christianity.

John Locke

Argued that land and labor were main sources of wealth; government exists to protect life, liberty, property.

Francois Quesnay

Physiocrat who argued that wealth came from agriculture and supported free trade.

Adam Smith

Physiocrat who advocated laissez-faire economics and rejected mercantilism.

David Hume

Scottish philosopher known for skepticism and logical challenges to religion.

Baron d'Holbach

Wrote System of Nature; described a materialistic, godless universe.

Voltaire

Prince of the Philosophes; criticized the Church and advocated religious tolerance.

Denis Diderot

Creator of The Encyclopédie, which compiled Enlightenment knowledge.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Believed social rank shouldn't determine destiny; actions define worth.

Salons

Informal gatherings hosted by women where Enlightenment ideas were discussed.

Empiricism

Belief that knowledge comes from experience; supported by Francis Bacon.

Skepticism

The idea that all knowledge should be doubted, associated with David Hume.

Deism

Belief that God created the universe but doesn't intervene; popular among elites.

Atheism

Complete rejection of God or any religion.

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu

Introduced the idea of variolation to combat smallpox.

Emile

Rousseau's book arguing for natural education and childhood development.

Smallpox

Deadly epidemic disease that disfigured or blinded survivors.

Books

Printed materials that spread knowledge widely thanks to the printing press.

The Encyclopédie

Diderot's major Enlightenment work compiling human knowledge.

George Frideric Handel

Composer of Messiah and Water Music for King George I.

J. S. Bach

Baroque composer of church works and instrumental pieces.

Diego Velásquez

Spanish court painter known for royal portraits.

Gian Bernini

Creator of Baroque sculpture; redesigned St. Peter's Basilica.

Dutch painting

Highlighted private life and the middle class.

Rembrandt

Dutch painter known for realistic portraits of everyday people.

Jan Vermeer

Painted domestic interiors like The Milkmaid.

Jacques-Louis David

Neoclassical artist who painted Oath of the Horatii.

Daniel Defoe

Wrote Robinson Crusoe and Moll Flanders.

Samuel Richardson

Focused on domestic life and women's private emotions.

Henry Fielding

Author of Tom Jones, satirizing social hypocrisy.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Playwright of Faust, exploring emotion over reason.

Jane Austen

Novelist who used a male pen name to publish works on women's roles.

Baroque

Grand, dramatic art and architecture linked to royal and religious patronage.

Taverns

Village meeting places for travelers and social gatherings.

Theaters and opera houses

Built for growing urban audiences and the middle class.

Coffee house

Urban meeting place popular among men for conversation and debate.

Frederick II of Prussia

Enlightened monarch ('Frederick the Great') who expanded Prussia and modernized government.

Pugachev's Rebellion

Peasant revolt against Catherine the Great, led by Emelian Pugachev.

Catherine the Great

Russian ruler who implemented limited Enlightenment reforms.

Joseph II of Austria

Son of Maria Theresa; reformed religion, press, and serfdom.

Prussian and Habsburg rulers

Monarchs practicing enlightened absolutism to strengthen state power.

Maria Theresa of Austria

Limited noble power, mandated education, but remained devoutly Catholic.

Frederick William I of Prussia

Strengthened Prussian army and bureaucracy through taxation.

Enlightened absolutism

When absolute rulers embraced Enlightenment ideals while maintaining power.