SOC 100 Final Exam Vocab Terms

achieved status

a status into which one enters: voluntary status

activity theory

people who are busy and engaged, leading fulfilling and productive lives, can be functional for society

ageism

discrimination or prejudice against a person on the grounds of age

alienation

a condition in which people are dominated by forces of their own creation that then confront them as alien powers: according to Marx the basic state of being in a capitalist society

alternative social movements

social movements that seek the most limited social change and often target a narrow group of poeple

animism

the belief that spirits are part of the natural world, as in totemism

ascribed status

a status into which one is born; involuntary status

authority

the justifiable right to exercise power

beliefs

ideas about what is true and false

broken windows

minor acts of deviance must be controlled in order to avoid a spiral crime and social decay

bureaucracy

a legal-rational organization or mode of administration that governs with reference to formal rules and emphasizes merit-based advancement

capitalism

an economic system in which property and goods are primarily privately owned; private decisions determine investments; and competition in an unfettered marketplace determines price, production, and the distribution of goods

caste

a religion-based system of stratification characterized by no social mobility

charismatic authority

authority that rests on the personal appeal of an individual leader

churches

large bodies of people belonging to an established religious organization; the term is also used to refer to the place in which religious ceremonies are carried out

cisgender

describes people whose gender identity is aligned with the sex they were assigned at birth

civil religion

a set of religious beliefs through which a society interprets its own history in light of some conception of ultimate reality

classical model

model of social movements based on a concept of structural weakness in a society that results in psychological disruption in individuals

Coleman Report

a landmark sociological study that found family background and socioeconomic status had a greater impact on student achievement than differences in school resources

collective action

action that takes place in groups and diverges from the social norms of the situation

conflict theory

the idea that conflict between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general

contagion theory

collective action arises because of people's tendency to conform to the behavior of others with whom they are in close contact

continuity theory

older adults' well-being is enhanced when their activities are consistent with their personality, preferences, and activities earlier in life

convergence theory

collective action happens when people with similar ideas and tendencies gather in the same place

corporation

a legal entity unto itself that has legal personhood distinct from that of its members--namely its owners and shareholders

credentialism

an overemphasis on credentials (e.g., college degrees for signaling social status or qualifications for a job)

crime

the violation of laws enacted by society

cults

fragmentary religious groupings to which individuals are loosely affiliated but that lack any permanent structure

cultural globalization

diffusion of cultural practices, values, and products across national borders includes the spread of popular culture, such as music, movies, and fashion, as well as the exchange of ideas, beliefs, and lifestyles

denomination

a religious sect that has lost its revivalist dynamism and become an institutionalized body, commanding the adherence of significant numbers of people

dependent variable

the outcome the researcher is trying to explain

deviance

any transgression of socially established norms

discrimination

harmful or negative actions (not mere thoughts) against individuals based on their age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion regardless of their individual merit

disengagement theory

functional for society to relieve older people of their traditional roles as it frees up those positions for younger people

disestablishment

a period during which political influence of established religions is successfully challenged

dramaturgical theory

the idea that social life is essentially a theatrical performance in whcih we are all actors on metaphorical stages with roles, scripts, costumes, props, and sets

dual labor market theory

migration is driven by structural demand for low-wage labor in developed countries

dualist perspective

the view that the informal economy exists separately from the formal economy and provides income for those excluded from formal employment

ecological approach

in the eld of urban analysis, a perspective emphasizing the "natural" distribution of city neighborhoods into areas having contrasting characteristics

Ecological Modernization

a theory suggesting that environmental protection can be achieved through technological innovation and institutional reform within capitalist systems

economic globalization

increasing interconnectedness and integration of economies across the world through the free flow of goods, services, capital, and technology

elder abuse

in intentional act or failure to act that causes or creates a risk of harm to an older adult; an older adult is someone age 60 or older; the abuse often occurs at the hands of a caregiver or a person the elder trusts

emergent norm theory

emphasizes the influence of keynoters in promoting new behavioral norms

emigration

the act of leaving one's country of birth to move to a new country; the act of leaving one place

endogamy

marriage to someone within one's social group

environmental justice

a framework that seeks fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people--regardless of race, class, or income--in environmental decision-making and protection from environmental harms

environmental sociology

examines the relationships between society and the natural environment, including how social factors contribute to environmental decision-making and protection from environmental harms

estate

a politically-based system of stratification characterized by limiteed social mobility

ethicalism

the adherence to certain principles to lead a moral life, as Buddhism and Taoism

ethnography

researcher is immersed in the natural setting of an entire social community to observe and experience their everyday life and culture

exogamy

marriage to someone outside one's social group

experiments

a research method by which variables can be analyzed in a controlled and a systemic way, either in an artificial situation controlled by the researcher or in a naturally occurring setting

extended family

kin networks that extend outside or beyond the nuclear family

family capitalism

capitalistic enterprises owned and administered by entrepreneurial families

felon disenfranchisement

the restriction or denial of voting rights for individuals convicted of felonies, often persisting beyond incarceration

focus groups

group interview involving a small number of demographically similar people or participants who have common traits and/or experiences

Fordism

the system of production pioneered by Henry Ford, in which the assembly line was introduced

foreign aid

voluntary transfer of public resources, from a government to another independent government, to an NGO, or to an international organization (such as the World Bank or the UN Development Program) with at least a 25 percent grant element, one goal of which is to better the human condition in the country receiving the aid

formal social sanctions

mechanisms of social control by which rules or laws prohibit deviant criminal behavior

frames

social movements frame, or assign meaning to and interpret, relevant events and conditions in ways that are intended to mobilize potential adherents and constituents, to garner bystander support, and to demobilize antagonists

functionalism

the theory that various institutions and processes in society exist to serve some important (or necessary) function to keep society running

gender

a social position; behaviors and a set of attributes that are associated with sex identities

gender dysphoria

when there is a conflict between a person's gender identity and their assigned sex, and this conflict causes significant distress

gender expression

how they outwardly show their gender identity, which may or may not align with societal expectations associated with the gender they were assigned at birth

gender identity

how someone internally understands their gender, regardless of their physical body

gender roles

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as masculine, feminine, or other

gender typing

women holding occupations of lower status and pay, such as secretarial and retail positions, and men holding jobs of higher status and pay, such as managerial and professional positions

gentrification

when neighborhoods undergo a process of change where new investment, new people, and new establishments move into and alter the character of a neighborhood

glass ceiling

an invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder

glass escalator

the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs

global capitalism

the current transnational phase of capitalism, characterized by global markets, production, finances; a transnational capitalist class whose business concerns are global rather than national; and transnational systems of governance that promote global business interests

global city

a city, such as London, New York, or Tokyo, that has become an organizing center of the new global economy

global governance

the process by which individual governments, IGOs, NGOs, and transnational organizations, come together to establish global rules, norms and standards or to regulate or resolve specific trans-border problems

graying

a term used to indicate that an increasing proportion of a society's population is older

Human Exceptionalism Paradigm

a sociological view that sees humans as superior to other species, exempt from ecological limits due to culture and technology, with nature existing primarily to serve human needs

hidden curriculum

the nonacademic and less overt socialization functions of schooling

historical-structural theory

migration is shaped by historical and global economic structures creating inequality between countries

hypothesis

a proposed relationship between two variables, usually with a stated direction

hypothesis of persistent inequalities

refers to the idea that educational systems tend to reproduce existing social inequalities over time, rather than eliminate them--even as access to education expands

incarceration

legally imposed deprivation of personal liberty, typically in a facility specially designed for the purpose

income

money received by a person for work, from transfer (gifts, inheritances, or government assistance), or from returns on investments

informal economy

economic activities that are not regulated by the state and often occur outside formal labor protections and taxation systems

idiographic

relating to the study or discovery of particular scientific facts and processes, as distinct from general laws

immigration

a term that describes the movement of people across borders; the act of arriving and settling in another place

independent variable

the measured factor that the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable

informal settlement

residential areas where housing has been constructed without social approval, often lacking legal land tenure, basic infrastructure, and access to essential services such as water, sanitation, and electricity

informal social sanctions

the usually unexpressed by widely known rules of group membership; the unspoken rules of life

institutional capitalism

consolidated networks of business leadership in which corporations hold stock shares in one another, resulting in increased concentration of corporate power

intergenerational mobility

movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another

intragenerational mobility

movement up or down a social structure hierarchy within the course of a personal career

internationalization of the state

the state incorporates global norms within its borders, focusing on the adaptation of national policies to international frameworks

intersectionality

the concept that social identities like race, class, gender, ability status, and sexual orientation intersect and interact, shaping unique experiences of advantage and disadvantage

interviews

one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject; participants are not limited to predetermined choices

labeling theory

the belief that individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them and their reactions to those labels over time for the basis of their self-identity

legal-rational authority

authority based on legal, impersonal rules; the rules rule

legalist perspective

the belief that the informal economy arises when entrepreneurs avoid burdensome government regulations and bureaucratic red tape

life course theory

people play an active role in determining their physical and mental well-being, but constrained by context

lower-income household

a household with incomes less than two-thirds of the median

managerial capitalism

capitalistic enterprises administered by managerial executives rather than by owners

master status

one status within a set that stands out or overrides all others