Units 8-14 - Western Civilization

Roosevelt’s Four Freedoms

Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom of want, and freedom from fear. The importance of the concept, articulated in his 1941 State of the Union address during WWII, lies in framing American and Allied war aims as a defense of these universal values, inspiring the public, and forming the basis for later human rights frameworks like the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 

Casablanca Conference (1943)

A secret meeting between Roosevelt and Winston Churchill to plan the Allied strategy for the latter half of WWII. Its importance lies in the declaration of unconditional surrender as the Allies’ policy, and in deciding to invade Sicily and Italy next, rather than launching a cross-channel invasion of France as the Soviets had requested. 

Bretton Woods Conference (1944)

A meeting where 44 countries established the post-WWII internation economic order by creating the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and the World Bank. Its importance lies in creating a system for monetary stability and economic cooperation through fixed, but adjustable; exchange rates pegged to the US dollar and providing a framework for international investment and development. 

“Percentages Agreement”

The Percentages Agreement was a secret, informal political understanding reached by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin during the Fourth Moscow Conference in October 1944. The Agreement proposed a percentage-based division of control and influence over several Eastern European countries after WWII. The Agreement is important because it was a significant step toward the start of the Cold War and the division of Europe into Western and Soviet blocs. 

Yalta Conference (1945)

A meeting between the “Big Three” Allied leaders—Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin—to plan the final defeat of Nazi Germany and the postwar world. It is important because the agreements made there, though initially intended to foster cooperation, ultimately shaped the postwar geopolitical landscape, particularly concerning the division of Germany, the re-establishment of governments in Europe, the establishment of the United Nations, and the Soviet Union’s entry into the war against Japan. 

United Nations

An international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among its 193 member states. It is important because it serves as a forum for diplomacy to prevent conflict, uphold human rights, and address global issues like poverty, disease, and climate change through a shared legal and political framework. 

Iron Curtain

A symbolic and physical barrier dividing Europe during the Cold War, separating the Soviet-controlled communist states of the East from the democratic capitalist countries of the West. It is important because it represented the intense ideological, political, and military division between the two superpowers, leading to an arms race, proxy wars, and shaping global geopolitics for decades until its collapse in 1989-1991. 

Truman Doctrine

A U.S. foreign policy initiative announced by President Harry S. Truman in 1947 that committed that US to providing political, military, and economic assistance to all “free peoples” resisting communist expansion. It was a policy of containment, aimed at stopping the spread of Soviet influence during the Cold War. 

NATO and Warsaw Alliances

Rival military alliances during the Cold War, which are important because they solidified Europe’s division, created a framework for decades of geopolitical tension and a military standoff, and institutionalized collective defense and an arms race. 

Berlin Airlift

A Western Allied operation from 1948-1949 to supply West Berlin with food, fuel, and other necessities after the Soviet Union blocked all land and water access to the city. Its importance lies in being the first major Cold War crisis, demonstrating the U.S. and its allies’ commitment to contain communism, and ultimately leading to the formation of NATO. 

Syngman Rhee

A Korean independence leader and the first president of South Korea, serving from 1948 to 1960. His importance stems from his pivotal role in establishing the Republic of Korea, leading the nation through the Korean War, and his anti-communist ideology. However, his legacy is also marked by his authoritarian rule, corruption, and eventual forced resignation after mass protests. 

Korean War (1950-1953)

A conflict between communist North Korea and non-communist South Korea, which was supported by a UN coalition led by the US. It is important because it was one of the first major armed conflicts of the Cold War, solidifying the division of Korea at the 38^th parallel and leading to a permanent US military presence globally. 

Welfare State

A government system that provides a social safety net for citizens, using wealth redistribution through taxes to fund programs like healthcare, education, unemployment benefits, and pensions. 

New Towns

Purpose-built, planned communities designed to relieve overcrouding in existing cities by providing self-sufficient living and working environments. 

Marshall Plan (1947)

A US initiative to provide economic aid to Western European countries to help them rebuild after WWII. It is important because it revived European economies, preventing them from succumbing to communism and fostering stability that led to long-term alliances like NATO. 

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (1951)

An international organization created in 1951 to pool the coal and steel industries of six European countries—Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands—under a single, supranational authority. 

European Economic Community (Common Market) (1957)

To promote economic integration among six member states, France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. It is important because it eliminated tariffs between member countries to create a common market, which fostered postwar economic recovery, increased trade, and laid out the groundwork for the European Union. 

“Economic Miracle”

A period of rapid and sustained economic growth in a country, transforming it froma devastated or underdeveloped state into a prosperous one. It is important because it signifies a dramatic improvement int he standard of living for the population, boosts a nation’s global standing, and can serve as a model for other developing countries. 

British India

A period of direct British rule over the Indian subcontinent, following the British East India Company’s rule, and it is important because of its profound and lasting impact on the region’s economy, politics, and society. 

Mahatma Gandha (1869-1948)

A preeminent Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist widely revered as the leader of the successful campaign for India’s independence from British rule. He is considered the “Father of the Nation” in India, and his use of nonviolent civil disobedience, or satyagraha, became internationally influential. 

Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920-1922

A campaign led by Gandhi in India to protest British rule, encouraging Indians to boycott British institutions and goods and withdraw from the government. 

The Salt March

A nonviolent protest led by Mahatma Gandhi against the British salt tax and monopoly in India. It is important because it galvanized millions of Indians to participate in civil disobedience, brought international attention to the struggle for independence, and ultimately helped to weaken British colonial rule. 

Mohammad Ali Jinnah

A prominent 20^th-century politician and barrister who is known as the “Founder of Pakistan” and the “great leader” of the nation. He is important because his leadership was instrumental in advocating for the rights of Muslims in British India, which led to the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan as a separate nation for Muslims. 

Indian Partition

The division of British India into two independent countries: India and Pakistan. It is important because it led to one of history’s largest mass migrations, resulting in widespread violence and the deaths of over a million people, and it created enduring geopolitical conflict between India and Pakistan. 

Kashmir

A Himalayan region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. It is important because it is a long-standing territorial disput between nuclear-armed rivals India and Pakistan, making it one of the world’s most militarized and strategically volatile regions. 

French Indochina/Vietnam

A French colonial territory in Southeast Asia that included modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from the mid-19^th century to the mid-20^th century. It is important because it was a site of economic exploitation, a major battleground during WWII, and a focal point for decolonization movements that ultimately led to the First Indochina War and the subsequent Vietnam War. 

Dien Bien Phu

A decisive battle in the First Indochina War where the Viet Minh defeated the French, leading to the end of French colonial rule in Southeast Asia. Its importance lies in how it directly resulted in France’s withdrawal from Vietnam, the temporary division of Vietnam, and the subsequent escalation of US involvement in the region to counter the spread of communism.

Geneva Conference of 1954

A conference that aimed to resolve the Korean War and the First Indochina War, resulting in the Geneva Accords which temporarily divided Vietnam. It is important because it temporarily ended the fighting in Indochina but also created a divided Vietnam that became a major factor int he escalation of the Vietnam War. 

Ho Chi Minh

A revolutionary leader who was instrumental in Vietnam’s struggle for independence from French colonialism. His importance lies in his role as a key figure in the fight against French and American forces, his leadership in uniting Vietnam under a communist government, and his enduring legacy as a symbol of anti-colonial and nationalist movements worldwide. 

Ngo Dinh Diem

The first and only president of South Vietnam from 1955 until his assassination in 1963. His importance stems from his role as a key US ally in the early Vietnam war, his authoritarian leadership, and the political turmoil that followed his death, which escalated American involvement int he war. 

Strategic Hamlet Program

A South Vietnamese and US plan to counter the Viet Cong by isolating rural populations in fortified villages to protect them from communist influence and attacks. It is important because it was a key US strategy int he early years of the Vietnam War, but ultimately failed due to forced relocations, corruption, and ineffective security, which alienated the local population and contributed to the growth of Viet Cong support. 

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

A series of clashes between US destroyers and North Vietnamese forces, which escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. 

Tet Offensive

A series of surprise attacks by the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong on cities and military bases across South Vietnam, launched during the Tet holiday. 

The Arab World and Israel

A cultural, geographic, and political region comprising the 22 member states of the Arab League, primarily located in Western Asia and North Africa. Israel is a sovereign Jewish state in the Southern Levant region of West Asia, bordered by Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Egypt. 

Hussein-McMahon Correspondence (1915-1916)

series of ten letters exchanged between Sir Henry McMahon, the British High Commissioner in Egypt, and Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Mecca. It is important because it promised British support for Arab independence in exchange for a revolt against the Ottoman Empire. 

Balfour Declaration (1917)

A public pledge by the British government to support the establishment of a Jewish “national home” in Palestine. It is important because it was the first time a major world power officially endorsed the Zionist goal of a Jewish homeland, which became a foundational document for the creation of the state of Isael in 1948. 

Sykes-Picot Agreement (May 1916)

A secret treaty between Britain and France to divide the Arab territories of the collapsed Ottoman Empire into spheres of influence, which is important because it ignored local ethnic and religious boundaries, created new borders that still affect the modern Middle East, and contradicted promises of Arab independence, leading to long-lasting resentment. 

Partition of Palestine

A plan to divide the British Mandate of Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states, which Jerusalem designated as an international city. 

The Six-Day War (1967)

A plan to divide the British Mandate of Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states, which Jerusalem designated as an international city.