Ch.3 CJ

What is crime?

A violation of the criminal law without acceptable legal justification.

What is deviance?

A violation of social norms defining appropriate behavior under certain circumstances.

How are crime and deviance related?

All crimes are deviant acts, but not all deviant acts are crimes.

What is a criminological theory?

A set of interrelated ideas that describe, explain, predict, and control some class of events—specifically crime.

What is the purpose of a theory?

To explain why crime occurs and guide prevention or control efforts.

What makes a “good” theory?

It fits the facts, stands up to scrutiny, and can be tested.

How are theories tested?

By forming and testing hypotheses through research.

What is the ultimate goal of criminological research?

Theory building—creating models that improve understanding of crime and inform policy.

Why can no single theory explain all crime?

Because crime has diverse causes that vary by context, culture, and individual factors.

If a theory explains why people steal but not why they commit violent crimes, what does that show?

That one theory cannot explain all forms of crime.

What are the nine general categories used to explain crime?

Classical/Neoclassical, Early Biological, Biosocial, Psychological, Sociological, Social Process, Conflict, Emergent, and Interdisciplinary.

Which theory type focuses on free will and rational choice?

Classical and Neoclassical.

Which explanation looks at genetics and physiology?

Biological and Biosocial theories.

Which perspective views crime as learned behavior?

Social Process theory.

Which perspective focuses on power differences and inequality?

Conflict theories.

What intellectual era gave rise to Classical criminology?

The Enlightenment.

What idea did the Enlightenment emphasize?

Rationality, logic, and informed choice in human behavior.

Which perspective assumes people act with free will — Classical or Biological?

Classical

What causes crime according to classical theory?

The individual’s free will and rational choice.

What are the two central determinants of human behavior in classical thought?

Pain and pleasure.

Why is punishment considered necessary in classical criminology?

To deter offenders and serve as an example to others.

How should punishment function according to classical theory?

It should be swift, certain, and proportionate to deter future crimes.

Who wrote Essays on Crimes and Punishments (1764)?

Cesare Beccaria.

What was Beccaria’s main goal in reforming criminal law?

To make it more humanitarian and just.

What did Beccaria believe about punishment severity?

It should be just enough to deter the crime, never excessive.

What school of thought did Beccaria found?

The Classical School of criminology.

If a punishment is harsher than the crime warrants, would Beccaria approve?

No — punishment should be proportionate and rational.

What concept did Jeremy Bentham develop?

Hedonistic calculus — the idea that people weigh pleasure versus pain before acting.

What is Bentham’s philosophy of social control called?

Utilitarianism — laws should produce the greatest good for the greatest number.

What did Bentham believe effective punishment must be?

Swift, certain, and just.

If punishment is uncertain, what would Bentham predict?

People would still take the risk of committing crime.

What is the neoclassical perspective?

A modern update of classical theory emphasizing rationality and cognition more than pain and pleasure.

What does neoclassical theory add to classical ideas?

It recognizes that some factors (like mental state or circumstances) affect rational choice.

What is Rational Choice Theory?

Crime results from conscious decisions when the perceived benefits outweigh potential costs.

What is Routine Activities Theory (RAT)?

Crime occurs when a motivated offender, a suitable target, and lack of capable guardian converge in time and space.

 If someone leaves their car unlocked in a high-crime area, what theory best explains the resulting theft?

Routine Activities Theory.

If someone commits fraud because they calculate that the reward outweighs the risk, which theory applies?

Rational Choice Theory.

What modern practices are rooted in classical criminology?

Deterrence-based sentencing, “tough on crime” policies, and swift punishment systems.

What does classical thought assume about personal responsibility?

That people freely choose their actions and should be held accountable.

How do recent neuroscience findings challenge classical theory?

They suggest some decisions are made unconsciously, questioning pure free will.

A “three strikes” law is based on which criminological philosophy?

Classical — deterrence through certain and severe punishment.

What two theorists founded Classical Criminology?

Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham.

A person says, “He knew the risk and chose to do it anyway.” Which school of thought does this reflect?

Classical/Neoclassical.

What is the Biological School of criminology?

A perspective holding that criminal behavior has a physiological or genetic basis.

What do early biological theories focus on?

Inherited and physical traits that predispose people to criminal behavior.

What are the basic assumptions of early biological theories?

Behavior is predetermined and genetically based, criminality can be inherited, and some people are less evolved than others.

If a theory claims people are “born criminals,” which school of thought is that?

Early Biological.

How did early biological theorists view free will?

They believed behavior was biologically determined, not freely chosen.

Who founded phrenology?

Franz Joseph Gall.

What is phrenology?

The study of the shape of the skull to determine personality and behavior.

What was Gall’s key idea about the brain?

The brain is the organ of the mind, and specific areas control specific functions.

Who is known as the father of the Positivist School?

Cesare Lombroso.

What is atavism?

The idea that some people are biological throwbacks to earlier evolutionary stages—“born criminals.”

How did Lombroso describe born criminals?

As having primitive physical traits (e.g., long arms, large jaws, asymmetrical faces).

If someone argues that criminals have distinctive physical features, which theory are they using?

Lombroso’s theory of atavism.

What did William Sheldon focus on?

The relationship between body type (somatotype) and criminal behavior.

What are Sheldon’s three somatotypes?

Endomorph (soft, round), Mesomorph (muscular, aggressive), and Ectomorph (thin, fragile).

Which somatotype did Sheldon find most prone to criminality?

Mesomorphs — muscular and assertive individuals.

Who tested Lombroso’s claims scientifically?

Charles Goring and Karl Pearson.

Which researcher found partial support for Lombroso’s ideas?

Earnest A. Hooton.

Why were early studies on atavism criticized?

They ignored environmental and social influences on behavior.

What idea did early biological theorists extend to family studies?

That criminality is inherited across generations.

Who studied the Juke family?

Richard Dugdale.

Who studied the Kallikak family?

Henry Goddard.

What did these family studies claim?

Criminal behavior runs in families due to heredity.

What did the “criminal family” theory lead to socially?

The eugenics movement.

What extreme policy ideas came from early biological theories?

Eugenics—sterilizing people deemed “unfit” to prevent inheritance of criminal traits.

What was the Supreme Court case that upheld sterilization laws?

Buck v. Bell (1927).

What did early biological theories fail to consider?

The role of environment, socialization, and free will.

Who are the three major figures of early biological theory?

Gall (Phrenology), Lombroso (Atavism), Sheldon (Somatotypes).

What did Goddard claim about the Kallikaks?

One line descended from a “feebleminded” woman produced criminals; the other, from a “respectable” woman, produced law-abiding citizens.

What are biosocial theories?

Theories that combine biological factors with social and environmental influences to explain criminal behavior.

What is the key idea behind biosocial theory?

Biology and environment interact — biological traits may predispose someone to crime, but social conditions trigger it.

How do biosocial theories differ from early biological ones?

They reject determinism and recognize that biology is only one influence among many.

What do biosocial theories emphasize about human behavior?

It’s shaped by both genetic makeup and life experiences.

What does “gene-environment interaction” mean?

Biological factors may influence how people respond to their environment, and vice versa.

How do biosocial theories use genetics?

They explore how genes affect traits like impulsivity, aggression, or risk-taking linked to crime.

What have twin studies shown?

Identical twins show higher similarity in criminal behavior than fraternal twins, suggesting a genetic role.

What do adoption studies reveal?

Both biological and adoptive parents influence the likelihood of criminality.

What biochemical factors are linked to criminal behavior?

Hormones, neurotransmitters, diet, and toxins.

How can testosterone influence crime?

Higher levels are associated with aggression and dominance behaviors.

How can serotonin levels relate to criminal behavior?

Low serotonin is linked to impulsivity and poor emotional regulation.

If a community shows higher youth aggression due to lead exposure, what type of cause is this?

A biochemical/environmental factor.

What do neurological studies in criminology examine?

Brain structure, injury, and functioning in relation to criminal or antisocial behavior.

What are psychophysiological differences in offenders?

Lower resting heart rates, reduced skin response, and less fear of punishment.

What is the gender ratio problem in criminology?

The need to explain why men commit far more crimes than women in every society.

What does chromosome theory examine?

The genetic correlates of deviant and criminal behavior.

What is the XYY syndrome?

A condition in which males have an extra Y chromosome — known as “supermales.”

What early claim was made about XYY males?

They were overrepresented in prisons and tended to be more aggressive.

If a man in prison is found to have XYY syndrome, does this prove his crime was genetic?

No — it suggests correlation, not causation.

What do contemporary biosocial researchers focus on instead of XYY syndrome?

Specific genes, enzyme activity, and hormonal regulation

What does MAO-A deficiency sometimes cause?

Overstimulation of the nervous system and difficulty controlling impulses.

What is the DRD2 A1 allele gene called?

The “pleasure-seeking gene” — linked to risk-taking and reward-seeking behavior.

What are CREB genes associated with?

Learning, memory, and emotional regulation — impacting how people respond to stress or rewards.

What did Wilson and Herrnstein argue in Crime and Human Nature (1985)?

nherited traits interact with environmental influences to produce crime.

According to Wilson & Herrnstein, what combination best explains criminal behavior?

Biological predisposition + negative environment.

What does it mean that genes “enable” behavior?

Genes set biological potential, but environment decides whether it’s expressed.

What is the main focus of psychological theories of crime?

The individual — psychological processes, personality, and mental functioning.

What is the major motivational element in individuals?

Personality — it drives behavior and decisions.

When do defective or abnormal mental processes usually begin?

Often during early childhood due to poor conditioning or trauma.