Martin Luther

REGION: Europe - Started Protestant Reformation with 95 Theses on Oct. 31, 1517 - Disliked the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church - Excommunicated & condemned by Diet (& Edict) of Worms - Disagreed on authority of the pope and salvation for believers

John Calvin

REGION: Europe

- French theologian who broke with Catholicism after Martin Luther

- Preached a predestined elect would go to heaven

- Reformed religious community in Geneva, Switzerland

- Inspired many offshoots, ie Huguenots, Puritans, Presbyterians in Scotland, etc.

Henry VIII of England

REGION: Europe

- Broke with Catholic church due to his Spanish wife's inability to bear a son

- Established the Anglican Church/Church of England with the English monarch in charge thanks to Act of Supremacy

- Seized Catholic lands in England to build the Royal Navy

Elizabeth I of England

REGION: Europe

- Led a Renaissance in England by sponsoring artists like William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlow

- English colony of Virginia is named after her because she never married (the crown would be passed to her Scottish cousin James after her death)

- Defeated Spanish Armada, leading to decline of Spanish power and dominance

Counter Reformation

REGION: Europe, Americas, Caribbean

- Campaign by the Catholic Church to fight against the spread of Protestantism

- Council of Trent corrected church abuses and reaffirmed Catholic orthodoxy

- Jesuits spread Catholicism through missionary work in the New World, Japan, and India

- Increased use of the Inquisition to root out nonbelievers

Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

REGION: Europe

- Final religious conflict of the era between Protestants and Catholics

- Started as a local Holy Roman Empire conflict and blew up into a continent-wide conflict

- Ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which settled many religious issues and disrupted the power structure among European powers

English Civil War

REGION: Europe

- Stuart monarchs in England did not get along with Parliament like the Tudor monarchs had

- Taxation & Divine Right of Kings led to outbreak of civil war

- Roundheads (supporters of Parliament) vs Cavaliers (supporters of the Stuart monarchy)

- Oliver Cromwell led Roundheads to victory, beheaded Charles I and ruled as dictator during Puritan Commonwealth

- Stuart Restoration failed, William & Mary installed as co-monarchs during Glorious Revolution with English Bill of Rights signed

Louis XIV of France

REGION: Europe, North America

- Revoked the Edict of Nantes, which allowed religious toleration in France, in an attempt to create a uniform Catholic France

- Built palace court at Palace at Versailles 12 miles away from Paris

- Sent explorers to name and colonize Louisiana, named after Louis XIV

- Many expensive wars helped to bankrupt France

Commercial Revolution

REGION: Europe

- Changing nature of trade and business with creation of a global economy

- Establishment of large colonial empires generated great wealth for European nations

- Led to new business practices, like joint-stock companies (like the Dutch East India Company or the British East India Company), and the establishment of national banks (like the Bank of England)

- Demand for goods increased, leading to the worldwide circulation of silver from the Americas

Mercantilism

REGION: Europe, North America, Latin America, Caribbean

- European nations attempted to maintain a favorable balance of trade, exporting more than they imported

- European nations sought to accumulate silver and gold by requiring colonies to trade only with the mother country

- Encouraged competition among European nations as they sought to establish more colonies and bigger colonial empires

Motivations for Exploration

REGION: Europe, North America, Caribbean, Latin America, Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Africa, Central Africa, Southern Africa, East Africa
- To find new, more efficient water trade routes to Asian markets, avoided Muslim- and Italian- control trade routes through the Mediterranean or overland
- To gain political status and spread Christianity
- Made possible by new inventions in mapmaking and navigation, ship technology, gunpowder and cannons

British Colonies (Period 2)

REGION: Europe, North America, Caribbean, South Asia

- Colonized North America and islands in the Caribbean

- Established trading relationship with Mughal India; would end up taking over all of South Asia later

- Trading posts in Americas, Africa, and Asia set stage for British globalization

French Colonies (Period 2)

REGION: North America, Caribbean

- Fought with British for dominance in North America and South Asia

- Colonies like Saint Domingue (Haiti) exported tons of sugar

Dutch Colonies (Period 2)

REGION: North America, Caribbean, East Asia, Southeast Asia

- Established global network of trading outposts in Southeast Asia and the Americas (New Netherlands would become New York when given to the English)

- Driven by a large merchant class prospering during the Dutch Golden Age

Spanish Colonies (Period 2)

REGION: Europe, Southeast Asia, North America, Latin America

- Search for profit in New World started by Christopher Columbus in 1492

- Conquistadores Hernan Cortes conquered Aztecs, Francisco Pizarro conquered Incas

- Search for gold led to discovery of silver in South America to trade with the Chinese

Portuguese Colonies (Period 2)

REGION: Europe, Latin America, South Asia, Southeast Asia
- Led charge to find way around Africa to get to East & Southeast Asia, establishing trading outposts on both sides of Africa
- Dominated Indian Ocean trade until supplanted by Dutch, then the British
- Colonized Brazil in hopes of finding gold

Renaissance

REGION: Europe

- "Rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture from 1300s to 1500s

- Spirit of individualism and humanism (emphasizes the value of human beings, using reason and science to understand the world)

- Architecture mimicked the simple and elegant structures of Greco-Roman builders, with the addition of the dome

Columbian Exchange

REGION: Europe, West Africa, Central Africa, Latin America, North America, Caribbean

- New network of trade controlled by Europeans, bringing together Western Europe, Africa, and the Americas

- Exchange of goods, and movement of free and unfree laborers

- Plantation system established in New World drove the demand for slave labor

- Resulted in the mixing of Native Americans, Africans, and Europeans

Encomienda System

REGION: Latin America, Caribbean, Mexico

- Spain's economic structure in the New World

- Encomiendas were grants from the Spanish government that allowed holders to demand tribute and extract slave labor from the Indians

- Known as the mita in Peruvian silver mines

Hacienda System

REGION: Latin America, Caribbean

- Conquistadors were often given land as a reward

- Used coerced labor on that land to cultivate wheat, fruit, veggies, and sugar

- Some conquistadors had children with native women, leading to a social hierarchy in the New World based on how "European" you were (peninsulares, creoles, mestizos, mulattoes, Indians, and African slaves)

Transatlantic Slave Trade

REGION: West Africa, Central Africa, Europe, Latin America, North America, Caribbean

- Often called "triangular trade" because it linked Europe, Africa and the Americas

- Slaves sent to work on Caribbean sugar plantations, Central Americans and Peruvian silver mines, North American tobacco and cotton plantations

- 11 million Africans sent on the "Middle Passage" to chattel slavery in the Americas

African Diaspora

REGION: West Africa, Central Africa, Latin America, North America, Caribbean

- Spread of African culture throughout the Americas because of forced migration in Transatlantic Slave Trade

- Traditions, languages, religions, food, art, literature, music, etc. blended with American traditions

Treaty of Tordesillas

REGION: The entire world
- Papal decree that divided the New World between Spanish and Portuguese
- Spain got most of the Americas and Portugal got Brazil, Africa and almost all of Asia

Peter the Great

REGION: Europe

- Czar that attempted to westernize and modernize Russia to catch up to Europe

- Expanded Russia through war, created the Russian navy, and established new capital at new city of St. Petersburg

Ottoman Empire

REGION: Europe, Middle East

- Largest & most enduring of Muslim Gunpowder Empires, lasting until World War I

- Mehmed II "the Conqueror" - ended Byzantine Empire by conquering Constantinople in 1453 (later renamed Istanbul)

- Suleiman "the Magnificent" - peak of Ottoman power

- Devshirme - policy of forcibly conscripting captured Christian boys into the military, converting them to Islam, training them to be elite fighters in extreme dedication to the Ottoman sultan (janissaries)

- Imposed heavy taxes on non-Muslims called a jizya

Safavid Empire

REGION: Middle East

- Muslim Gunpowder Empire in modern-day Iran

- Struggled with its neighbors due to lack of natural resources and an inadequate navy

- Shi'a Muslims while their neighbors (Ottomans and Mughals) were Sunni Muslims

Mughal Empire

REGION: South Asia

- Muslim Gunpowder Empire in modern-day India/Pakistan, founded by supposed descendants of Genghis Khan

- Akbar the Great - pinnacle of Mughal power, religious tolerance tried to fix religious turmoil

- Shah Jahan's Taj Mahal is testament to Mughal culture and impact

Tokugawa Shogunate

REGION: East Asia

- Feudal military rule of Japan from 1603 to 1867

- Based out of Edo (modern-day Tokyo)

- Brought peace and stability, at the cost of isolationism

- Succeeded by the Meiji Restoration to modernize Japan (Period 3)

Sikhism

REGION: South Asia
- Developed from Hinduism, and is possibly influenced by Sufi Islam
- Monotheistic faith that recognizes the rights of other religions to practice

Ming China

REGION: East Asia

- Ruled China from 1368 to 1644

- Emperor Yongle sent Zheng He on seven voyages to display the majesty of Ming China and collect tributes

- After, Confucianist China withdrew into a sort of isolationism, wanting powers to come to them instead

- Saw the encroachment of European powers into the Asian trade networks

Qing China

REGION: East Asia

- Ruled China from 1644-1911

- Emperor Kangxi expanded China to Taiwan, Mongolia, and Central Asia

- Canton system attempted to limit European presence in East Asia by allowing only one port open at Guangzhou (also known as Canton)

Scientific Revolution

EGION: Europe

- Emergence of modern science, emphasizing experimentation and reason

- Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes came up with the Scientific Method

- Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei helped explain the planets and their orbits

- Isaac Newton explained gravity (among other things)

- Robert Boyle, Andreas Vesalius, William Harvey

Taxation in Period 2

REGION: All over the world

- Mughal zamindar - tax collectors (zamindars) would collect taxes from the peasant class

- Ottoman tax farming - local "tax farmers" paid the Ottoman government a set tax, then recouped by taxing the people around them as they saw fit

- Aztec tributes - surrounding people deferentially paid Aztecs local products or humans for sacrifices

- Ming "hard currency" - to avoid counterfeiting and hyperinflation, the Ming government required taxes to be paid in silver coins ("hard currency") rather than paper money