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What is statistical infrequency
Occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic compared to the rest of the population
Evaluate statistical infrequency
doesn't distinguish between positive and negative rare characteristics
Objective so factual and free from bias
What is deviation from social norms?
Behaviour that is different from the expected standards of behaviour in a community or society
Evaluation of deviation from social norms
Social norms change across time and culture
Pathologises antisocial criminal behaviour
Easy to notice
What is failure to function adequately?
Occurs when somebody is unable to cope with the ordinary demands of day to day living
Evaluation of failure to function adequately
Subjective of what is adequate, people with mental illnesses can force themself to function
Does mean that people struggling can get help
What is deviation from ideal metal health?
Occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health
Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health
Risks pathologising majority of the population
Criteria for idea mental health by Jahoda
Rational thinking, accurate perception of self, strives to reach self-actualisation, copes well with stress, lack of distress, good self esteem, lack of guilt, independant, environmental mastery: works sucessfully and loves and enjoys leisure time
What is a phobia?
An irrational fear of an object or situation
3 categories of phobias
Specific- object, animal, situation
Social- social situations such as public speaking and using public toilets
Agoraphobia- being outside your home
Cognitive characteristics of phobias
Selective attention, difficult to look away, irrational thoughts, cognitive distortions: jumping to conclusions, focus on negative, mind reading
Emotional characteristics of phobias
Anxiety and fear, unreasonable emotional responce
Behavioural characteristics of phobias
Panic, avoidance and endurance
Two process model of treating phobias
1) acquisition by classical conditioning
2) maintenance by operant conditioning
Systematic desensitisation
1) Patient and therapist create and anxiety hierarchy
2) relaxation techniques
3) gradual exposure
Flooding technique to treat phobias
No gradual exposure, patient immediately placed in frightening situation, forces them to learn that stimulus is not harmful and anxiety will ease
Cognitive characteristics of depression
Poor concentration, dwelling on the negative, absolutist thinking
Emotional characteristics of depression
Lowered mood, anger, lowered self esteem
Behavioural characteristics of depression
Altered activity levels, sleep/eating disorders, aggression/self harm
Becks cognitive explanation for depression
Faulty information processing, negative self schemas and the negative triad
What is faulty information processing?
Cognitive distortions such as disregarding the positive, focusing on thr negative and absolutist thinking
What is a negative self schema?
Interpreting all information about ourself in a negative way
What is the negative triad?
Having a negative view of yourself, the world and the future
What is Ellis’ cognitive explanation for depression?
It’s a result of irrational beliefs and thoughts following an event that interferes with us from being happy
Ellis’ ABCDE model
Activating event
Beliefs (irrational such as utopionism)
Consequences- emotions and behaviours
Dispute beliefs
Effect - depression cured
How can we prove that faulty information processing is a cause of depression?
Cohens study tracking development of 437 adolescents found that frequent cognitive distortions predicted later depression
Strengths of cognitive explanations for depression
Cohens development report
CBT is 80% effective
Limitations of cognitive explanations for depression
Correlations dosn’t establish causation
Drug therapies can be just as effective as CBT
Different versions of CBT
Becks’ identifies negative thoughts and challenges them with evidence against it. Ellis’ changes the irrational beliefs to rational ones, easing symptoms
What is behavioral activation?
Encouraging CBT patients to do positive behaviours such as exercising and socialising with positive reinforcement
Neural explanation for depression
Low serotonin is a neural correlate of depression
Biological treatment of depression
SSRIs - selective seratonin reuptake inhibitors, increasing serotonin bindings in synaptic transmission, improving mood
Findings of March et al. study on 327 depressed adolescents
CBT and SSRIs resulted in 81% reporting significant improvements in 36 weeks, 86% if both used
what is ocd?
an anxiety disorder that involves repetitive obsessions and / or compulsions
cognitive characteristics of ocd
obsessive thoughts and insight
emotional characteristics of ocd
anxiety, distress, depression, guilt and disgust
behavioural characteristics of ocd
repetitive compulsions that temporarily reduce anxiety, avoidance of triggering situations
the cycle of ocd
obsessive thoughts → anxiety → compulsion → temporary relief (repeat)
2 Biological explanations for twin studies
Genes or neurons
Genetic evidence for ocd
Lewis observed that 37% of his ocd patients’ parents also had it and 21% had siblings with it
Nestadt et al. found that 68% of MZ twins shared ocd compared to 31% for DZ
What factor challenges twin studies?
MZ twins are more likely to be parented very similarly making nurture a possible explanation for any results
What are candidate genes?
Genes found to be more prevalent in people with mental disorders
What does polygenic mean?
Multiple genes are involved in a disorder
Neural explanation for ocd
Caused by abnormal levels of neurotransmitters, serotonin hypothesis
Environmental evidence for ocd
Cromor found that over half of people with ocd experienced past trauma and that there is a positive correlation between severity if symptoms and severity of trauma
What is the interactionist approach of ocd?
Both genes and the environment play a role in the development of ocd
What is the diathesis stress model?
Biological venerability and and environmental trigger is needed for a mental disorder to develop