biology test review 7.5-9.2

biology is not biologying rn help

voluntary

skeletal muscles that are generally under conscious control

involuntary

smooth muscles and cardiac muscles that are not under completely conscious, voluntary control

skeletal muscles

primary function is to move the parts of the skeleton

smooth muscles

consists of shorter, wider cells in a looser arrangement

cardiac muscles

muscles found in the heart

• temporalis

• masseter

name one of the muscles that connect the mandible to the cranium and function to close the jaw.

trapezius

one of the most important muscles in shoulder movement; located in your back on either side of your spine; permit you to pull your shoulders back or to shrug

intercostal muscles

muscles between the ribs

biceps

allow you to bend your forearms; located on the front of each upper arm

triceps

extending or straightening the arms; located on the backs of your arms

pectoralis major

the largest of the chest muscles; extends from the sternum toward the outside of the chest, where it narrows to form a tendon that connects to the humerus; you use these muscles to shove your arms forward, such as when pushing away from an object or doing push-ups

rectus abdominis

extend from the bottom of the sternum to the front of the pelvic girdle; you use these muscles whenever you sit up from a reclining position

gluteus maximus

largest and strongest muscles in your whole body; pull your upper legs downward, away from the body and toward the rear

quadriceps femoris

a group of four muscles; located in the front of each thigh, that are all connected to the tibia

hamstrings

a group of three muscles in the back of each thigh that work together to bend the leg at the knees

carpal tunnel

most common special tunnel in the wrist

gastrocnemius

largest muscle of the calf; forms the bulge on the upper back part of your calf; main job is to extend the foot downward by pulling up on the heel via the achilles tendon

fascia

a tough, translucent sheath that the entire biceps muscle is encased in; binds the muscle together

sarcomeres

millions of overlapping protein fibers arranged in repeating units; give skeletal muscle its banded, or striated, appearance

neuromuscular junction

the point at which a motor neuron connects to a muscle cell

motor unit

the motor neuron and the group of muscle cells it controls

atrophy

muscle degeneration

hypertrophy

enlargement of muscles through use

white fibers

fast-twitch fibers; muscle fibers containing fewer mitochondria and less myoglobin

red fibers

slow-twitch fibers; muscle fibers that contain many mitochondria and large amounts of myoglobin

central nervous system

includes the brain and the spinal cord

meninges

composed of an outer layer called the dura mater, a middle layer called the arachnoid mater, and an inner layer called the pia mater

brain

the principal organ of the nervous system

spinal cord

thick bundle of nerve fibers located within the spinal cavity

cerebrospinal fluid

clear fluid that circulates through the fibers of the arachnoid mater, cushioning the brain when you bump your head

neurons

the actual nerve cells

glial cells

support and insulate nerve tissue

gray matter

found within the brain and spinal cord; consists largely of the cell bodies of neurons and is gray because the cell bodies lack the white, specialized covering known as myelin

white matter

composed of axons and glial cells that are white because of their myelin content

interneurons

neuron that relays signals between neurons or groups of neurons and is involved in information processing

sensory neurons

neuron that transmits information from the senses to the central nervous system

motor neurons

neuron that relays signals from the central nervous system to the other parts of the body

blood-brain barrier

protect the central nervous system from being permanently damaged every time you get sick

meningitis

disease caused when invading microorganisms enter the nerve tissue and infect the meninges

polio

a serious disease that attacks the spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

portion of the nervous system that consists of nerves

1. sympathetic

2. parasympathetic

name the two divisions of the hypothalamus

multiple sclerosis

a disease of the brain and spinal cord; occurs when the body’s immune system attacks the glial cells that provide myelin sheaths for nerve cell axons

paralysis

the inability of the muscles to move

action potential

brief pulse of positive charge that travels down the axon of a neuron that has been triggered to fire

synapse

an enclosed junction between two neu­rons or a neuron and another cell

parkinson’s disease

affects the patient’s control of posture and movement; it is characterized by tremors (shaking) and stiffness of the limbs

reflex

the simplest act of the nervous system; a quick, automatic response

cerebrum

largest part of the brain

cerebral cortex

outer layer of the cerebrum

occipital lobe

located at the back of the brain; sense of vision is interpreted by this

cerebral palsy

damage to the cerebral motor area before or shortly after birth

cerebellum

second largest brain region; behind the brain stem and just below the occipital lobe of the cerebrum

reticular formation

“master switch of the cerebrum”

hypothalamus

control unit for your body’s automatic systems; below the thalamus; responsible for the physical effects of emotions

thalamus

acts like a switchboard, routing activation signals from the reticular formation and sensory impulses from various parts of the body to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex

sensorineural deafness

partial or complete hearing loss caused by repeated or prolonged exposure to excessively loud sounds

behaviorism

a person’s actions can be completely explained as responses to particular stimuli

coma

prolonged unconscious state that may not be reversible

tetanus

disease caused by the soil bacterium clostridium tetani, whose toxin damages motor nerves, resulting in death if untreated; also called lockjaw because severe spasms of the jaw muscles make it hard to open the mouth

acute confusion

disturbance of the brain caused by physical illness elsewhere in the body; one of the most common disorders of the elderly

dementia

the disorder that results from the slow process of natural nerve loss; becomes noticeable b/w the ages of 70-80 (old people)

alzheimer’s disease

disease similar to dementia but more severe and sometimes occurring much earlier in life

nearsightedness

unable to see near but can see far away; myopia

farsightedness

able to see far away but not close up; hyperopia

astigmatism

focusing problem

presbyopia

condition of farsightedness brought on by age

colorblind

people who can’t see one or more of the primary colors

nightblindness

when your eyes don’t adjust in dim light

glaucoma

common cause of blindness; condition when the pressure of the fluid inside the eye becomes higher than normal causing permanent damage to the cells of the optic nerve

macronutrients

any of the group of nutrients, consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, that are needed in relatively large amounts; your body’s primary source of energy and building materials

micronutrients

any of the group of nutrients, consisting of vitamins and minerals, that are needed in relatively small amounts

digestion

the changing of food substances with large, complex chemical molecules into substances with smaller, less complex molecules