Botany EXAM #1

CHPT 1-5

What is Botany?

scientific study of plants

What was the early atmosphere of earth like: aerobic or anaerobic?

anaerobic

What is Scientific Method? (4 Basic Tenets)

Development started before the 1400s

1\. Source of information

2\. Phenomena that can be studied

3\. Constancy and universality

4\. Based on skepticism

What are the major steps of the Scientific Method?

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What is the structure of a hypothesis? (be able to Formulate One)

**must make predictions that can be tested.**

**▪ It must be consistent with further observations and experiments.**

**▪ It must be able to predict the results of future experiments.**

Format: IF THEN STATEMENT

What is a Null Hypothesis? (be able to Formulate One)

is a hypothesis that has no statistical significance or based on observations of chance

What are the major characteristics of life?

Both Prokaryotic and Eukaryotes

5 Characteristics:


1. organized
2. energy
3. internal constancy
4. reproduction, growth, and development
5. evolution

What are Plant (and the Major Characteristics)?

not all biologists agree

Most have green leaves, stems, roots, and flowers, although there are exceptions

What is Heterotrophy? What is Autotrophy? How are they different?

Heterotrophy- an organism that depends on other organisms for energy and nutrients

Autotrophy- an organism that produces their own energy and nutrient by using other sources of carbon (consists mainly of plants)

When are the major evolutionary steps in plants occur?

Plants reproduce and pass their genes/information to the next generation

This information can be changed through; mutation changes, natural selection (environment…)

What are the Major atmospheric components that are a direct result of photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is the central metabolism (how plants acquire energy)

plants use Carbon Dioxide and Water to produce Carbohydrates and Oxygen as a secondary product.

What are the Function of Pants that people use?

Oxygen

Shelter

Food

Clothes

…

What is a Prokaryotes?

Simplest (ancient most) form of life. Ribosomes and DNA free float within the cell.

What is a Eukaryotes?

Evolved from Prokaryotes

Larger and more complex, with organelles

How are Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes different?

Prokaryotes lack nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, found in Bacteria and Archaea

Eukaryotes possess a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, found in Plants, Animals, Fungi, and Protists

What are the components of the Cell Membrane? (what do each part do?)

Organelles involved in Protein Production, Protein Localization, and Cellular Digestion. The Cytoskeleton of the cell

Functions:


1. Forms a barrier between the cell and the outside world
2. Regulates passage of substances in and out of the cell; helps maintain homeostasis

composition:

* Composed of a Phospholipid Bilayer
* sugar molecules \[used for cell communication\]
* cholesterol \[mantains the right level of fluidity'\]
* proteins \[transports proteins, enzymes, recognition of proteins, adhesion of proteins, and protein receptors\]
* microfilament (cytoskeleton)

What is a Phospholipid Bilayer? (LABEL)

what are the parts of the Phospholipids? Hydrophilic or Hydrophobic?

Head= Hydrophilic

Tails= Hydrophobic

What are the “Jobs” of the Cell Membrane?

Growth (Membrane Fusion and Vesicle Formation)

Permeability

Dynamic

Transportation (Vesicles, Exocytosis, and Endocytosis)

Facilitated diffusion

Active Transport

What are the differences between Plant and Animal Cells?

Cell wall (plants) vs no cell wall (animals)

one big vacuole (plants) vs multiple Vacuoles (animals)

Plasmodesmata (plants) vs no Plasmodesmata (animals)

Photosynthesis (plants) vs no Photosynthesis (animals)

Chloroplasts (plants) vs Mitochondria (animals)

no Centrioles (plants) vs Centrioles (animals)

no Lysosomes (plants) vs Lysosomes (animals)

no Cilia/Flagella (plants) vs can have Cilia/Flagella (animals)

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What is the Cell Theory?

All living things are composed of one of more cell

cell is the most basic from of life

What is the function of the Nucleus?

stores the organisms genetic information (DNA, Enzymes, Histones, Proteins, RNA, and Water)

surrounded by nuclear envelope (inner and outer membrane)

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What is the function of the Plasma Membrane?

selectively permeable that covers the protoplasm

(located inside of the cell walls)

What is the function of the Mitochondria?

site of cellular respiration and ATP generation (powerhouse) in animal cells

double membrane: inside membrane folds to increase surface area

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What is the function of the Chloroplast?

Responsible for photosynthesis

Contains Chlorophyll, stacks of Thylakoids/Grana, stroma (inner fluid)

What is the function of the Vacuole?

single membrane

stores water, salt, crystals, starch, protein bodies, and other granules

used for cell enlargement

recycles monomers/impaired organelles by breaking them using digestive enzymes

What is the function of the Endoplasmic Reticulum?

narrow tubes and sheets of membrane within the cytoplasm

manufactures and transports molecules

Rough (covered in Ribosomes)

Smooth (involved in lipid synthesis and membrane assembly)

What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?

sorts newly synthesized proteins and lipids, important for inner cell transportation, and secretion

What is the function of the Microtubules?

Structural elements of the cell that act as a cytoskeleton and separate chromatids during cell division

composed of two proteins

What is the function of the Flagella/Cillia?

microtubules that are used to move the cell

What is the function of the Cell Wall (Include the Major Layers)?

composed of cellulose and lignin


1. Primary cell wall
2. middle lamella
3. secondary cell wall

function:

* provide mechanical strength
* regulate volume
* prevent cell from bursting
* cell specialization

What is the function of the Plasmodesmata?

channels (to adjacent cells that pass through the cell wall) used to transport nutrients, biochemicals, plasma membrane, cytosol, or section of ER.

connect protoplast to create symplast

can be singular or in clusters called primary pit fields

What happens in Interphase?

Growth phase consisting of: G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase

resting period between cell division (longest stage)

What happens in G1 phase?

Normal cell function and cell growth

* Protein synthesis
* normal metabolism
* nucleotides are synthesized
* longes part of cell cycle

What happens in in S phase?

DNA Replication

* DNA wraps around histones

What happens in G2 phase?

Additional growth and preparation of division

* spindle microtubules are synthesized
* Proteins produced (proteins that break down nuclear envelope)

What happens in Prophase?

1. chromosomes condense
2. nucleolus becomes invisible
3. nuclear envelope breaks into vesicles
4. spindles (composed of microtubules)
5. spindle fibers move to opposite poles

What happens in Prometaphase?

1. nuclear envelope breaks up
2. spindle fibers attach to kinetochores on chromosomes

What happens in Metaphase?

1. chromosomes line up along equator

What happens in Anaphase?

1. centromeres split sister
2. chromatids separate
3. chromatids move to opposite poles

What happens in Telophase?

1. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus form on each pole
2. chromosomes uncondense
3. spindles disappear

What are the steps of Cytokinesis? How does a new Cell Wall form?

division of the cytoplasm


1. cleavage furrow (phragmoplast)
2. cleavage deepens into a ring of proteins
3. membrane contracts

Dictyosome forms the cell membrane?

Phragmosome forms a new cell wall?

What are the products of Mitosis?

division for the growth of an organism

creates EXACT copies of the parent cell

2 Diploid cells

What are the products of Meiosis?

2 divisions that result in the production cells

4 Haploid cell/gametes (one chromatid)

What is Crossing Over? When does occur in Meiosis?

occurs between maternal and paternal homologs


1. During prophase I (pachytene) of meiosis each paternal chromosome finds a pairs with a equivalent maternal chromosome
2. Breaks occur in similar sites of the chromatids
3. repair enzymes attach material pieces to paternal pieces
4. results in new chromatids

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what are the stages of Prophase I?

Leptotene→ Zygotene→ Pachytene→ Diplotene→ Diakinesis

What is Leptotene?

the beginning of prophase I

chromosomes start to condense

What is Zygotene?

Synapsis begins

Synaptonemal complex forms

What is Pachytene?

Crossing-over

DNA exchange by non-sister chromatids

What is Diplotene?

Synapsis ends

Chiasma visible within bivalent

What is Diakinesis?

Prophase I ends

Nuclear membrane disintegrates

When does the reductional division of meiosis happen?

during the formation of the gametes

How many nuclear divisions occur in meiosis?

2

When does crossing over and the division of maternal and paternal chromosomes occur? How do these both increase the genetic variability of the offspring?

Pachytene

Increases Genetic diversity variability in the offspring because it creates slightly different chromosomes from the originals.

What are the differences in the division of the chromosomes in meiosis compared to mitosis? How does this difference result in a reductional division?

mitosis= 2 diploid (2 identical cells)

meiosis= 4 haploid (crossing over occurs in meiosis + chromosomes reduced to half the normal number)

What is Ethnobotany?

the scientific study of relationships between plants and people

When did humans start cultivating plants? Where was this?

Cultivation of food/plants began around 10,000 years ago

Crops were domesticated (agriculture) began around 9,000 years ago in the FERTILE CRESCENT

What are the three F’s of plant production?

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What plants provide Carbohydrates?

Cereal Grains (small fruits of grasses/seeds)

Caryopses- grains, kernels, and seeds

wheat, Rice, Corn, Oats, Rye, and Barley

What plants provide Oils, Vitamins, and Minerals?

Soybeans, Legumes, Oranges, Lemons, Limes, Grapefruit, Raspberries, Blackberries, Boysenberries, Strawberries, Peaches, Cherries, Apricots, Plums, and Almonds

What plants provide drugs?

Cola trees, Tobacco, and Marijuana

What plants provide Fibers, woods, and Chemicals?

Flax, Corchorus, Hemp, Conifers, Hardwood trees (dicot), Cotton, Pines, and Kenaf