ES402 Exam 2 - Comprehensive Review of Key Terminologies in Biology

High Fat Diets are _________ of fat as total intake and less than _______ grams of total CHO per day.

40-60%

20

Sources of Fatty Acids used in Beta-Oxidation:

- Adipose Tissue (majority)

- Blood Stream (VLDLs)

- Intramuscular Triglycerides within Skeletal Muscle

__________ is the largest pool available used for beta oxidation. Can be broken down into fatty acids.

Adipose Tissue

where is fat stored in the body

- adipose tissue (430000 kJ) and muscle lipoproteins (11000 kJ)

- utilized as fatty acids

1. saturated fatty acids has ___ bonds

2. unsaturated fatty acids has ___ bonds

1. no double bonds

2. one or more double bonds

LPLs can pull _________ out of VLDLs and send them through the blood stream to exercising skeletal muscle.

Fatty Acids

In trained individuals, intramuscular triglycerides are located near the _________.

Mitochondria

____________ is the metabolic breakdown of fatty acids to ATP.

Beta Oxidation

Availability of _________ change due to exercise, duration, last meal eaten, and contents of that meal.

Lipids

Lipid utilization varies accordingly to exercise _________ and __________.

Intensity

Duration

Fat Utilization

- at rest = _________

- as intensity increases, lipid oxidation _________

High

Decreases

CHO Utilization

- at rest = ________

- as intensity increases, CHO oxidation ________

- at maximal intensity, using only _______

Low

Increases

Carbohydrates

Crossover _______ is moveable based on training status.

VO2max

Once fatty acids are removed from triglycerides, they can be transported in the ________ to skeletal muscle and used as ________.

Blood

Energy

________ is transported through the blood to the liver. Used to reform triglycerides or put through _________ to produce glucose.

Glycerol

Gluconeogenesis

__________ must be consumed from diet and cannot be produced on their own.

Essential fatty acids

_________ are known to decrease inflammation, reduce risk for coronary artery disease, and reduce overall risk of dying.

Omega-3 Fats

________ omega-3s include alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). Examples include flaxseed oil, canola oil, english walnuts, soybean oil.

Plant-based

________ omega-3s are mainly found in fish, shellfish, and krill.

Animal-based

_______ is the primary structural component of your brain and retina. _____ is its precursor. Body makes both from short-chain ALA inefficiently.

DHA

EPA

_________ are pro-inflammatory. Short-chain include _______ which is abundant in corn oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, and canola oil. Long-chain include _______ which is abundant in liver, egg yolks, animal meats, and seafood.

Omega-6 fats

Linoleic Acid

Arachidonic Acid

Vegan athlete will need to supplement to get _______ omegas. Prescription supplements are best.

Long-Chain

The optimal ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 ranges

from 1:1 to 2:1

__________ are considered hydrogenated unsaturated fats. They pack straight, are more shelf stable. However, linked to heart disease and cancer.

Trans Fats

__________ contain groups other than carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Include phospholipids and lipoproteins (HDL, LDL, VLDL)

Compound Lipids

________ breaks triglycerides down into glycerol and fatty acids.

Lipolysis

Hormones Used in Lipolysis

- Adipose Triglyceride Lipase (ATGL)

- Hormone Sensitive Lipase (HSL)

- Monoacyl Glycerol Lipase (MGL)

fatty acids bind to ____ to move through the blood to the skeletal muscle

albumin

adipose triglyceride lipase

the enzyme that initiates lipid degradation

_______ regulates beginning process of lipolysis to speed up/slow down. Stimulated by epinephrine and inhibited by insulin.

Hormone Sensitive Lipase (HSL)

Monoacylglycerol lipase

Breaks down monoacylglycerol into glycerol and a single fatty acid chain

Lipolysis occurs during both __________ and rest and continues for up to _______ hours following activity

Physical Activity

6

Albumin

Lipolysis does not occur ______ hours after high CHO meal due to ________ spike.

1-2

Insulin

Lipolysis in adipose tissue is stimulated by ___________ to break down triglycerides

Norepinephrine

high levels of NE generated during ____ intensity exercise

high

Lipolysis in Adipose

- rest, most _______ are re-esterfied and triglycerides as recreated

- all _______ produced leaves the cell to enter the blood and is transported to the liver

Fatty Acids

Glycerol

Albumin molecules have _____ binding sites that have the potential to attach fatty acids.

3

Transport from adipose to blood depends on __________. Reason why there are not many fatty acids transported to adipose tissue during high intensity exercise.

Blood supply

To enter the sarcolemma (blood) into the sarcoplasm, _________ and ________ are needed. Work similarly to ________ receptors and stimulated through muscle contraction.

FABPpm

FAT/CD36

GLUT4

Once fatty acids are within the sarcoplasm, ________ is needed to bring fatty acids to the outer mitochondrial membrane.

FABPc

The highest amount of intramuscular triglyceride is found in _______ muscle fibers and the least amount is found in _______ muscle fibers.

Slow Twitch

Fast Twitch

______ and _______ are need to transport long chain fatty acids into the mitochondria. _______ sits in the outer mitochondrial membrane and _______ sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

CPT1, CPT2

CPT1

CPT2

________ is required as a co-transporter to bring LCFA into the mitochondrial membrane. Enters back out to CPT1 to bring in another FA, cycle repeats.

Carnitine

________ and ________ chain fatty acids can cross the mitochondrial membrane without CPT transporters.

Short

Medium

beta oxidation of fatty acids

- produce acetyl CoA (precursor of acetoacetate)

- pairs of fatty acids removed from end of each chain

- when one pair of carbons gets removed, you have one FADH2 and One NADH, and one acetyl-coa

Beta oxidation is inhibited by excess _______ formed during high intensity exercise.

Acetyl-CoA

Release of what catecholamines increase during exercise increases adipose lipolysis

NE and epinephrine

During moderate intensity exercise, there is an initial _______ of fatty acid in blood, followed by a ______ of fatty acids in the blood as taken up by muscle.

Rise

Decrease

During long duration exercise, fatty acid oxidation _______ as muscle glycogen is consumed. Sweet spot of lipid oxidation is ________ VO2max.

Increases

60-65%

25% VO2Max

- _________ plasma FFA

- ___________ of muscle triacylglycerol and plasma glucose

- _________ from muscle glycogen

Majority

Even Disitribution

Smallest

65% VO2max

- ______ muscle glycogen

- __________ muscle triacylglycerol and plasma glucose

- __________ plasma glucose

Majority

Even Distribution

Smallest

85% VO2max

- ________ muscle glycogen

- ____________ plasma FFA, muscle triacylglycerol, plasma glucose

Largest

Even Distribution

100% VO2max

- ________ muscle glycogen

All

________ individuals reach a crossover point 45-65% of VO2max. ____________ training may move crossover point to the right to allow for __________ sparing.

Untrained

Endurance

Glycogen

____________ increases mitochondria, capillaries, FABP, CPT transporters, IMTG, and lipid oxidation.

Endurance Training

Consuming ________ before exercise releases ________. Suppresses breakdown of LCFA.

CHO

Insulin

Randle Cycle

- beta-oxidation produces ________

- high levels of Acteyl-CoA suppress _______

- FA oxidation increases citrate levels which suppresses _______

Acetyl-CoA

PDH

PFK

As intensity rises:

- glycolysis speeds up, _________ fatty acid transport into the mitochondria

- more ________ ions accumulate

- excess acetyl-CoA leads to conversion of ________

- excess acetyl-CoA is bound to ________

- decrease __________ transport of LCFA into mitochondria

Decreased

H+

Malonyl-CoA

Carnitine

CPT1, CPT2

__________ slow gastric emptying, slow absorption, transported into chylomicrons, replenish IMTG

Long Chain Fatty Acids

____________ are not stored in the body.

Medium Chain Fatty Acids

Short Term Effects of High Fat Diet:

- ________ fatigue resistance

- depletion of _________

- _________ recovery

Worse

Glycogen

Poor

Long Term Effects of High Fat Diet:

- __________ in endurance in animal studies

- enhanced ________ oxidation

Increased

Fat

protein function

- catalytic

- transport

- hormones

- signaling

- contractile

- structural

- immunological

- regulatory

amino acids structure

Central carbon, Amino group (NH2), Carboxyl group (COOH) [acid part], Hydrogen, "R" group

Protein structure

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

protein dehydration synthesis

The reaction that builds amino acids

protein synthesis

- starts from DNA in the nucleus

- transcription

- mRNA at the ribosomes binds anticodon to T RNA to form amino acids together

- forms protein

primary protein structure

sequence of a chain of amino acids

secondary protein structure

occurs when the sequence of amino acids are linked by hydrogen bonds

tertiary protein structure

occurs when certain attractions are present between alpha helices and pleated sheets

quaternary protein structure

protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain

aerobic training on muscle protein synthesis (acute)

- may be decreased or unchanged during long duration exercise

- increases for 24-48 hrs following aerobic exercise at higher intensity

resistance training on muscle protein synthesis (acute)

•MPS decreased during training

•MPS increases after resistance exercise

•Magnitude of increase is related to intensity and volume

resistance training on muscle protein synthesis (chronic)

•Acute rise in MPS and breakdown attenuated after training

•Basal MPS may be higher in trained individuals

aerobic training on muscle breakdown and training

•Contractile protein breakdown unchanged during prolonged exercise

•Non-contractile protein breakdown is increased during prolonged exercise

resistance training on muscle protein breakdown

breakdown is increased for 24 hrs following training

amino acid pool

the supply of amino acids derived from either food proteins or body proteins that collect in the cells and circulating blood and stand ready to be incorporated in proteins and other compounds or used for energy

Transamination

•Removal of nitrogen group to a-ketoglutarate to form a-keto acid and glutamate

- a-keto acids can be converted to ______ in the krebs cycle

- many amino acids subjected to transamination produce ____ and _____ which are precursors for gluconeogenesis

- intermediates

- pyruvate

- oxaloacetate

oxidative deamination

•Removal of ammonia from glutamate

•Ammonia converted to urea in the liver and removed by the kidneys

•Reproduces a-ketoglutarate for more transamination reactions

what are the branched chain amino acids as energy substrates

- valine---> succinyl CoA

- isoleucine --> Acetyl CoA

- leucine ---> Acetyl CoA

branched chain amino acids (BCAA)

- strongest stimulus for MPS

- can be directly oxidized in skeletal muscle

glucose-alanine cycle

- how body handles excess glutamate from transamination

- Pyruvate can be converted into Alanine via alanine aminotransferase (PLP). Adds a NH4+ group from glutamate to pyruvate. Alanine can travel to the liver and be reconverted back into pyruvate and then into glucose needed for gluconeogenesis.

using BCAA for fuel creates an excess of

glutamate (transamination)

Glutamine

•Can be formed in skeletal muscle after transamination of BCAA

•Can be reversed in the liver

•Nonessential

glutamine synthase

enzyme that breaks down glutamate + NH4 + ATP into its precursor glutamine + p + ADP

Glutaminase

converts glutamine + H2O to glutamate + NH4

urea cycle

•Nitrogen generated from amino acid oxidation becomes ammonia

•Ammonia converted to urea in liver

•Urea disposed through kidneys

•Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) elevated on high protein diet

milk proteins

-Accelerate recovery from muscle damaging exercise

-Increase glycogen replenishment

- Increases glycogen synthase when taken with moderate CHO (insulin dependent)

- Whey increases glycogen synthase alone (insulin independent)

-Improve hydration status

-Highest digestibility

-High density of leucine

- can alter hydration status

Which of the following is not true regarding milk proteins?

Milk proteins cannot alter hydration status.

whey protein

-Water soluble

-Mixes easily

-Rapidly digested

- binds iron in the gut and enhances absorption

Casein protein

- Water insoluble

-Coagulates in the gut

-Digested more slowly than whey protein

-Slows gastric motility

Tryptophan in milk based proteins

- increases cognitive performance under stress

- Improves sleep quality

- May speed wound healing (e.g., combat sports)

Lactoferrin in milk based proteins

Antibacterial, antiviral, and antioxidant properties

eggs

-Excellent amino acid profile

-Easily digested

•Whole egg: 75 kcal, 6g protein, 1.5 g fat

•Egg white: 16 kcal, 3.5 g protein, 0 g fat

-Increases MPS when eaten after resistance training

Meat

- Ranges in fat and cholesterol based on type and cut

-Rich in Essential Amino Acids (EAA)

-Source of carnitine and creatine

-4 oz lean beef: 10g EAA, 30 g total AA, 3.5 g leu

Meat is considered "lean" when fat grams are <____% of serving size

4 oz = 113 g

10

vegetarian diet with proteins

- potential to be protein deficient

- Possible to combine foods to create complete proteins

soy protein

-Complete protein but low in BCAA

-Stimulates MPS less than whey

-Soy phytoestrogens inhibit mTOR

amino acid sources

•Meat and dairy are complete proteins

•Both are high in Branch Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs)

•Amino acid transporters found on muscle cell wall