Earth Systems FINAl

Big Bang Theory

Universe started from a tiny, hot point and expanded.

Evidence for Big Bang

Red shift, microwave background, element mix.

Red Shift

moving away

blue shift

moving closer

Hubble’s Law

Farther galaxies move faster → universe expanding.

Light Year

Distance light travels in 1 year.

Natural Elements from Stars

H, He, C, O, N.

Wavelength & Energy

Shorter wavelength = higher energy.

Absolute

true brightness

Apparent

how bright it looks from Earth

Star Formation

Gas & dust collapse → fusion begins.

Sun's Energy

Hydrogen fuses into helium (1st law of thermodynamics).

Emission Spectrum

Tells star’s elements, age, temperature.

Star Death

Happens when hydrogen fuel runs out.

Sun’s End

Red giant → white dwarf.

Big Star Life Cycle

Nebula → Protostar → Main → Supergiant → Supernova → Black Hole/Neutron Star.

Small Star Life Cycle

Nebula → Protostar → Main → Giant → Planetary Nebula → White Dwarf.

Sunspots

cool spots

Solar storms

energy bursts

solar wind

charged particles

HR Diagram

Graph of brightness vs. temperature

Rotation

day/night

Revolution

seasons

Earth’s Day

from rotation

seasons

Due to Earth's tilt

Kepler’s Law

Planets move faster near Sun.

Mass vs. Gravity

More mass = stronger gravity.

More distance

weaker gravity

Perihelion

closest

Aphelion

farthest

Speed at Peri/Aphelion

Faster at perihelion

circle

low speed in orbit

oval

high speed in orbits

Igneous

cooled lava/magma

Sedimentary

pressed particles

Metamorphic

changed by heat/pressure

Half-Life

Time for half a substance to decay

Cont-Cont

Mountains (Himalayas)

Cont-Ocean

Volcanoes/Trenches (Andes)

Divergent

New crust (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)

Transform

Earthquakes (San Andreas)

Hot Spot

Not boundary (Hawaii)

Mining Methods

Surface

Underground
Placer
Mountaintop removal

Renewable

solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, biomass

Nonrenewable

coal, oil, gas, nuclear

Settlements

Near water, good land; avoid harsh climates.

Natural Hazards & Climate

Fires, floods, storms made worse by humans.

4 Spheres

Lithosphere, Biosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere.

Anthropogenic

Caused by humans (e.g., fossil fuels).

Major Gases

Nitrogen 78%, Oxygen 21%, Argon, CO₂, H₂O.

Weather

short term

Climate

long term

UV

sunburn

IR

heat

Albedo

reflection

Effects of Climate Change

Sea level rise

Extreme weather
Melting glaciers
Ocean acidification

Vectors & Climate

Warmer/wetter = more disease spread.

Greenhouse Gases (6) –

CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, H₂O, O₃, CFCs

Fossil Fuel Gases

CO₂, CH₄, NOx, SO₂

CO₂ Rise Causes

Burning fuels + deforestation

Montreal Protocol

Banned CFCs

Sea Level Rise Causes

Ice melt + thermal expansion

Carbon Removal

Photosynthesis

Ocean Acidification

CO₂ → acid → coral harm

Coral Reef Threats

Sewage, plastic, oil, overfishing

Troposphere

bad (smog)

Stratosphere

good (UV shield)

Cap & Trade

Emission limits with trading

Carbon Capture & Storage

Trap/store CO₂ underground

Urban Heat Island

hotter due to buildings

Ecosystem Services (4)

Provisioning, Regulating, Cultural, Supporting

Positive a

amplifies change (melting ice)

negative

reduces change (more plants = less CO₂)

Proxy Indicators

Ice cores, tree rings, ocean sediment, coral, pollen

Carbon Cycles Fast

air/organisms

Carbon Cycle Slow

fossil fuels

Ecological Footprint

Your resource use

Reduce Footprint

Save energy, eat less meat, reuse

Climate Models

Grid “boxes” simulate changes

Law of Fossil Succession

Fossils appear in a consistent vertical sequence; helps identify the relative age of rocks.

. Law of Superposition (Geology)

In undisturbed rock layers, the oldest layer is at the bottom and the newest is at the top.

Law of Conservation of Mass

Mass can’t be created or destroyed in a closed system—applies in rock and carbon cycles.

1st Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Gravity is stronger between objects with more mass and weaker with more distance.
Formula: F=Gm1m2r2F=Gr2m1​m2​​

3rd Law (Law of Harmonies):

 The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun.

2nd Law (Law of Equal Areas):

A planet moves faster when it’s closer to the sun, sweeping out equal areas in equal time.

1st Law (Law of Ellipses)

Planets orbit the sun in ellipses, not circles.

Fomula for velocity Hubbles law

Velocity = Hubble’s constant × Distance

Big Bang Theory (Cosmological Principle)

The universe began from a hot, dense point and has been expanding ever since.