Germany - Democracy and Dictatorship

On what date did World War One end when Germany surrendered?

On what date did World War One end when Germany surrendered?

The war ended on November 11 1918 with an armistice. The Kaiser abdicated on 9 November.

Who was both the first Chancellor of the new German republic and was appointed its first President in 1919?

Ebert became Chancellor in November 1918 and was appointed President of the new republic in August 1919.

When was Germany’s new republican constitution agreed by the National Assembly, which met in Weimar?

The constitution was agreed in August 1919. The Treaty of Versailles was signed in June of that year.

What did Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles say?

Article 231 was the ‘War Guilt Clause’ which said Germany was to blame for starting the war.

When did France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr industrial area of Germany in response to the non-payment of reparations?

The occupation began in January 1923. This was in response to Germany missing a reparations payment in November 1922.

What name was often given to those German politicians who negotiated the armistice at the end of World War One?

They were known as the ‘November Criminals’ as many Germans felt they betrayed the German army by surrendering.

What was the name of the attempted armed takeover of the government in March 1920?

The Kapp Putsch was in March 1920. The Spartacist Uprising was an attempted communist takeover in January 1919.

Which of the following features of the Weimar constitution was considered to be a strength?

The Bill of Rights was considered to be a strength as it guaranteed all Germans rights and equality under the law.

Which group was considered to have benefited from hyperinflation?

People who had borrowed money benefited as they were easily able to pay back their debts as money lost its value.

What was the name of the repayment plan agreed for Germany's reparations in September 1924?

It was the Dawes Plan. It was replaced by the Young Plan just after the Wall Street Crash.

What was the name of the new currency introduced in October 1923 that helped to end hyperinflation?

The introduction of the Rentenmark returned prices in Germany to sustainable levels.

For how long was Stresemann Chancellor in 1923?

After 3 months Stresemann lost his majority in the Reichstag and resigned.

Gustav Stresemann became Chancellor of Germany in August 1923 at the height of the hyperinflation crisis. What other post did he hold at the same time?

In his role as Foreign Minister, Stresemann helped Germany to improve its relations with its former enemies.

Stresemann remained Foreign Minister until his death. When did he die?

This was the same month as the Wall Street Crash that brought about the Great Depression.

By how much was the total amount of reparations to be paid by Germany reduced under the Young Plan?

It was 20 per cent. Germany had to pay 2 billion Marks per year, but could postpone 2/3 of this each year.

Which two countries made an agreement with Germany in the Locarno Treaties to respect the borders between them?

It was France and Belgium who agreed to respect their Versailles Treaty borders with Germany.

In which year was Germany accepted into the League of Nations as a permanent member of the Council?

After the Locarno Treaties were signed in 1925 Germany accepted the Versailles border settlement and so was allowed to join the League.

What was the name of the most influential visual arts movement in Weimar Germany?

The Bauhaus School was the most influential visual arts movement founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919. Cubism was a movement in Spain and France.

Name a Weimar film maker?

Fritz Lang was a Weimar film-maker.

The Great Depression caused mass unemployment in Germany. How many Germans were unemployed by the time Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933?

6.1 million. Unemployment before the Great Depression had stood at 1.4 million. By 1933 a third of Germans were unemployed.

Who was the German Chancellor from March 1930 until May 1932, and whose government struggled to deal with the effects of the Depression?

Heinrich Bruning

The Nazis gained seats in the Reichstag after 1929 as a result of the Depression. Which other party gained seats too?

Communist Party (KPD)

Although the Communist Party picked up support, it did not win nearly as many seats as the Nazis.

Who was in charge of the Nazi Party's propaganda during their rise to power?

Joseph Goebbels portrayed Hitler as the only man who could save Germany from the Depression.

How many seats did the Nazis win in the Reichstag in the election of November 1932?

196

The Nazis had won 230 seats in July 1932. They lost 34 seats in the November election but remained the largest party.

Who preceded Hitler as Chancellor of Germany?

It was von Schleicher. Von Papen was Chancellor before him and agreed with Hindenburg to appoint Hitler, with von Papen as Vice Chancellor.

What was the name of the law passed by the Reichstag in March that gave Hitler power to make laws alone for four years?

The Enabling Act

The Act was passed by a two thirds majority after the communist deputies were banned from the Reichstag and other deputies were intimidated into voting for it.

In June 1933 Hitler signed an agreement called the Concordat, with whom?

The Pope

The Concordat was an agreement that Hitler would not interfere with the Catholic Church as long as it kept out of politics.

What was the date of the Night of Long Knives, when Hitler eliminated the leadership of the SA?

It was 30 June 1934. Hitler set up Nazi people's courts where judges had to take an oath of allegiance to him on 24 April 1934.

What title did Hitler take upon President Hindenburg's death in August 1934?

Führer

Hitler combined the Chancellorship and Presidency and also became head of the German Army.

Who was appointed Economics Minister in 1937 with the goal of achieving 'Autarky'?

Hermann Göring

Göring lasted only three months in office, but remained responsible for the four year plan to achieve Autarky.

Which workers' organisation gave them rewards for their hard work, such as theatre trips and cheap holidays?

It was Strength Through Joy. The Labour Front replaced the trades unions and set workers' wages.

Which branch of the Hitler Youth was for girls aged 14-17?

League of German Maidens

Girls undertook physical activity and learnt domestic skills, like cooking and sewing.

Who led the Nazis' Reich Church, which tried to unify the different branches of Protestantism?

It was Ludwig Muller. Bonhoffer was a member of the Confessional Church and was linked to a 1944 attempt to assassinate Hitler.

Which organisation led by Heinrich Himmler was in charge of Hitler's 'police state' (and oversaw the other two)?

It was the SS. The Gestapo was the secret police and gathered information about opposition to the Nazi regime.

In which German city was a Nazi mass rally held every August?

It was Nuremburg. Munich was the city in which the Nazi Party was formed in the early 1920s.

Which opposition group was formed by Hans and Sophie Scholl at the University of Munich in 1943?

The Group handed out leaflets and marched through the city. Its leaders were executed by guillotine.

Which racial group in Germany was favoured as the 'ideal' by the Nazis?

Aryans were the group Hitler believed were superior to other racial groups.

In which year were the Nuremberg Laws passed?

1935

The Nuremburg Laws said Jews could not be German citizens and banned relationships between Jews and Aryans.

Which event led to the setting up of the Kindertransport, which evacuated Jewish children from Germany to Britain by train?

Kristallnacht was a turning point for many Jews, who felt they were no longer safe in Nazi Germany.

Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939 after the German invasion of which country?

It was Poland. The invasion began on September 1. Britain and France had signed a treaty with Poland to defend it against attack.

What was the name of Britain's new bombing policy in May 1942 that targeted German cities?

It was 'area bombing'. 'Tactical bombing' is bombing aimed only at military targets. 'Area bombing' targeted civilians also.

How many German civilians died as a result of the Allied bombing campaign during World War Two?

It was 300,000 - 400,000. Britain suffered 67,000 civilian deaths in contrast.

What was the name of the army officer who planted the bomb that almost killed Hitler in July 1944?

It was Colonel Stauffenberg. Rommel was involved in the plot but did not plant the bomb.

To which country in Nazi occupied Europe were Jews sent as part of the 'Final Solution' agreed at the Wannsee Conference?

It was Poland, where the Nazis built death camps, where Jews were gassed in their hundreds of thousands.

What was the name of the biggest Nazi death camp?

Auschwitz- Birkenau

2.5 million Jews are estimated to have been murdered there.

How many Jews are estimated to have been killed during the Holocaust?

It was 6 million. There were approximately 11 million Jews in Europe before World War Two and the Holocaust.

When did Germany surrender to the Allies, ending World War Two in Europe?

Germany surrendered between 7 and 9 May.

What did the Nazis introduce on 27 August 1939, before the official declaration of war against Britain and France?

Rationing was introduced because a lot of German food had been imported and was no longer available.

Why did the Nazis abandon the task force (einsatzgruppen) approach to getting rid of the Jews?

The einsatzgruppen approach to handling the Jews took too long and involved too many man-hours, so it was expensive.

Describe how the government of the German Empire was structured under Kaiser Wilhelm

The constitution of the Empire’s central government was a complicated one, made up of several different bodies:

• The Emperor (Kaiser) – Head of the armed forces, controlled foreign policy, and appointed the Chancellor.

• The Chancellor – In charge of the government and had authority over the Bundesrat.

• The Bundesrat – Federal Council made up of 58 representatives from the 25 states. Introduced laws to the Bundestag and power to approve them.

• The Bundestag – Federal parliament made up of 397 deputies. Voted on laws introduced by the Bundesrat.

Why did the Kaiser face difficulties ruling Germany between 1890 and 1914?

The growth of the working class and the rise of socialism made ruling Germany increasingly difficult for the Kaiser Wilhelm II. German politics had become more radical. The upper classes feared the growth of the working classes and thought rapid industrialisation threatened their wealth and social status.

Describe the events of the German Revolution in 1918

The German Revolution was a period of turmoil and political change that began at the end of World War I and ended with the adoption of the Weimar constitution. Some of its pivotal events included the Kiel mutiny, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the formation of the Weimar Council of People’s Ministers and the National Assembly, the Spartacist uprising in Berlin and several short-lived socialist republics across Germany.

Name the three separate bodies of the Weimar government and describe what each one did

President -

• Elected every 7 years

• Chooses the Chancellor and is head of the army

• Can dissolve the Reichstag, call new elections and suspend the constitution.

Reichstag

• The new German Parliament

• Members are elected every 4 years using proportional representation

Reichsrat

• Second (less powerful) house of parliament

• Consists of members from each local region

• Can delay measures passed by the Reichstag

Give five terms from the Treaty of Versailles and explain why they were unpopular in Germany

• territory was taken from Germany - depriving it of valuable industrial and agricultural income

• Article 231, the War Guilt Clause blamed Germany and her allies for starting the war – this led to feelings of humiliation and anger

• Germany had to pay reparations of £6.6 billion - this ensured that the economy would not recover

• Germany's armed forces were greatly reduced

• Excluded from the League of Nations

Give two examples of unrest that occurred under the Weimar Republic between 1919 and 1922

• A nationalist group called Black Reichswehr rebelled in September.

• Communists took over the governments of Saxony and Thuringia in October.

What was the Munich Putsch? Why did it fail?

In 1923, the Nazi Party was a small, right-wing extremist group. In November of that year, they conspired to overthrow the democratic government of Germany by launching an ill-fated insurrection. The Beer Hall Putsch was put down by the Munich police. Its ringleaders, including Adolf Hitler, were arrested. It seemed like the perfect opportunity to take power, but poor planning and misjudgement resulted in failure and the subsequent imprisonment of Adolf Hitler.

How did Gustav Stresseman try to build better international relationships?

To try and tackle the crisis gripping Germany, Stresemann followed a policy of 'fulfillment' whereby he aimed to improve international relations by attempting to fulfil the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. These improved relationships would then in turn help him to secure a reasonable revision to the treaty.

Germany also signed arbitration treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia renouncing the use of force and promising to refer any future disputes to an arbitration tribunal or to the Permanent Court of International Justice.

• The Dawes plan was signed in 1924. Stresseman secured France and Belgium’s withdrawal from the Ruhr and agreed more realistic payment dates for the reparations. The USA lent Germany £40 million to help it pay off its other debts.

• The Young plan was agreed in 1929. The Allies agreed to reduce the reparations to a quarter of the original amount, and Germany was given 59 years to pay them.

• The Locarno Pact was signed in October 1925. Germany, France and Belgium agreed to respect their joint borders - even those created as result of the Treaty of Versailles.

• The League of Nations allowed Germany to join in 1926. Germany was re-established as an international power.

• The Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed by Germany in 1928, alongside 65 other countries. They promised not to use violence to settle disputes.

How did life improve for the working classes and women under the Weimar republic?

Pensions and sickness benefits schemes were introduced. Compulsory unemployment insurance was introduced in 1927, which covered 17 million workers. Government subsidies were provided for the building of local parks, schools and sports facilities, and there was a massive programme of council house construction. Following the war, women were given the right to vote, hold elected office, leave the home in favor of work, seek higher education, and strive to find a life outside of societal gender norms.

What was the Great depression?

The "Great Depression " was a severe, world -wide economic disintegration symbolized in the United States by the stock market crash on "Black Thursday", October 24, 1929 . It sparked an international economic crisis and meant the USA couldn’t afford to prop up the German economy any longer.

Describe the trends in federal election results in Germany between 1928 and 1932.

The Nazi Party won a large amount of support in every federal election. The Social Democratic Party (SPD) lost support in every federal election.

Give three examples of social groups that were particularly drawn to the Nazis and explain why.

• Unemployed and young people who wanted a brighter future

• Anti-semitists

• Anti-communists (supported the Nazi’s anti-communist and anti-jewish views)

• Wealthy businessmen who had lost out in the Great Depression turned to the Nazi Party. They approved of the Nazi’s anti-communist stance and wanted the economic prosperity Hitler had promised.

Describe how Hitler rose to the position of Chancellor

Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after the parliamentary elections of July and November 1932 had not resulted in the formation of a majority government – despite the fact that Hitler had been Hindenburg's opponent in the presidential election only 9 months earlier.

What was the Enabling Act? When was it introduced?

The Nazis passed the 'Law for the removal of the distress of the people and the Reich' (Enabling Act) in March 1933. This suspended the constitution and gave Hitler the power to make laws without the Reichstag for 4 years.

What happened on the night of the long knives?

The Night of Long Knives, also known as the Röhm Putsch, was the purge of the SA leadership and other political opponents from 30 June 1934 to 2 July 1934. Carried out primarily by the SS and the Gestapo, over 150 people were murdered and hundreds more were arrested.

Describe three powers the Nazis had that suggested Germany had become a police state by 1934

• Judges had to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler and were expected to act always in the interests of the Nazi state.

• All lawyers had to join the Nazi Lawyers' Association, which meant they could be controlled.

• Gestapo - this was the Nazis’ secret police force. Its job was to monitor the German population for signs of opposition or resistance to Nazi rule. It was greatly helped by ordinary German people informing on their fellow citizens.

• Standard punishment for crimes were abolished and so local prosecutors could decide what penalties to impose on those found guilty.

• The role of defence lawyers in criminal trials was weakened.

• The Sicherheitsdienst was the Nazi intelligence service. It was initially run by Reinhard heydrich - he aimed to bring every German under continual supervision

• The Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich gave the Nazis total power over local governments.

What were the aims of Nazi propaganda?

Adolf Hitler created a Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda to shape German public opinion and behavior.

Nazi propaganda played an integral role in advancing the persecution and ultimately the destruction of Europe’s Jews. It incited hatred and fostered a climate of indifference to their fate.

The Nazis effectively used propaganda to win the support of millions of Germans in a democracy and, later in a dictatorship, to facilitate persecution, war, and ultimately genocide. The stereotypes and images found in Nazi propaganda were not new, but were already familiar to their intended audience.

What was the Reich Church?

The National Reich Church was a collection of protestant churches that merged in 1936 headed by the Reich Bishop Ludwig Muller. Those who preached in the Reich Church were able to continue doing so as long as they agreed with the views of Hitler and the Nazis. This included the exclusion of Jewish teaching from the Old Testament and prohibited the baptising of Jews.

Name two members of the Church who opposed the Nazis.

In 1937, the Pope issued a message called 'With Burning Concern' which was read in every Catholic Church. It described Hitler as “a mad prophet with repulsive arrogance”. Pope Pius XI

The Catholic Archbishop of Munster led a successful campaign to end euthanasia of mentally-disabled people.

What expectations did the Nazi party have of women?

They were the centre of family life, as housewives and mothers.

• Female doctors, teachers and civil servants were forced to give up their careers. Even at the end of the war, women were never asked to serve in the armed forces.

• Their job was to keep the home nice for their husband and family.

• Hitler wanted Germany to have a high birth rate, so the population would grow. The Nazis even considered making it law that families should have at least four children

• Women were supposed to copy traditional German peasant dress - plain peasant costumes, hair in plaits or buns and flat shoes. They were expected not to wear make-up or trousers, dye their hair or smoke in public.

• The Law for the Encouragement of Marriage gave newly-wed couples a loan of 1,000 marks, and allowed them to keep 250 marks for each child they had. Mothers who had more than eight children were given a gold medal.

Describe one way in which daily life was affected by Nazi rule before the outbreak of war.

The Nazis used children’s leisure organisations to indoctrinate young people in their National Socialist ideology.

Childbirth and pregnancy were further encouraged by bans on abortions (which were made punishable by death),  sterilisations (for ‘ Aryan ‘ women), and contraception .

Another way in which the Nazis aimed to indoctrinate the younger population was through reforming the education system.

On the 2 May 1933, the Nazis banned trade unions and arrested their leaders. As part of Gleichschaltung , a new centralised Nazi ‘trade union’ was created. This was called the German Labour Front. The German Labour Front took control over workers’ rights, setting the conditions of work, such as hours of work and rate of pay.

The German Labour Front also had other initiatives, such as the popular ‘Strength Through Joy’ programme. This programme aimed to give opportunities to working class people for leisure activities usually reserved for the middle classes, such as sports facilities or holidays.

The Nazis promoted traditional forms of German art and photography, such as landscapes. They despised any art in the modernist style , believing it to be ‘degenerate’ and communist.

In 1936, the Nazis carried out a review of all art in Germany’s museums and galleries. As a result of this review, 13,000 paintings that the Nazis considered ‘degenerate’ were confiscated and removed.

How was education in Germany affected while the Nazis were in power?

The Nazis first focused on changing what students learned. They changed the core curriculum to emphasise sports, history and racial science as the most important subjects. In 1936, sport was taught for a minimum of two to three hours every school day. By 1938, this had been increased to five hours every day. Subjects such as religion became less important, and were eventually removed from the curriculum altogether.

The Nazis also adapted where the students learned from. They introduced new textbooks which were often racist, and promoted ideas such the need for Lebensraum . Any textbooks used to educate students had to be approved by the party.

The Nazis also placed great emphasis on who the teachers were. Under the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service Act of 7 April 1933, just three months after Hitler became chancellor, all Jewish teachers, and teachers with undesirable political beliefs (such as communists), were dismissed.

All teachers were required to attend a one-month compulsory Nazi training course, which emphasised Nazi ideology and the importance of advocating the regime’s ideas.

What were the Nuremberg Laws? Why were they important?

Two distinct laws passed in Nazi Germany in September 1935 are known collectively as the Nuremberg Laws: the Reich Citizenship Law and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor.

According to the Reich Citizenship Law and many ancillary decrees on its implementation, only people of “German or kindred blood” could be citizens of Germany. A supplementary decree published on November 14, the day the law went into force, defined who was and was not a Jew. The Nazis rejected the traditional view of Jews as members of a religious or cultural community. They claimed instead that Jews were a race defined by birth and by blood.

The second Nuremberg Law, the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor, banned marriage between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. It also criminalized sexual relations between them. These relationships were labeled as “race defilement”

Describe the events of Kristallnacht.

From November 9 to 10, 1938, in an incident known as “Kristallnacht”, Nazis in Germany torched synagogues, vandalized Jewish homes, schools and businesses, and murdered close to 100 Jews. In the aftermath of Kristallnacht (“Crystal Night” or the “Night of Broken Glass”), some 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to Nazi concentration camps.

What changes were made to the Nazi economy after the outbreak of World War two?

The fraction of the workforce working in war industries rose from a quarter to three quarters.

Germany used raw materials from occupied lands to support its production.

The Nazis had to use foreign workers to keep the economy going, including civilians from occupied territories, prisoners of war and slave labourers.

Weapons production was greatly increased. The economy was focused solely on the war effort.

What is ‘total war’? How did it affect German civilians?

Total war is a type of warfare that includes any and all civilian-associated resources and infrastructure as legitimate military targets, mobilises all of the resources of society to fight the war, and gives priority to warfare over non-combatant needs.

Civilians back home had to make major adjustments to their lifestyles: women took over for men in industry, food rationing came into effect, and business owners changed or adjusted their products to support the war.

Who was Claus von Stauffenberg? What did he do to oppose Nazi rule?

Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg (was a German army officer and resistance leader who is best known for orchestrating the 20 July plot, which was the failed attempt on 20 July 1944 to assassinate Adolf Hitler at the Wolf's Lair near Rastenburg, East Prussia, now Kętrzyn, in present-day Poland.

What is a ghetto? Describe the role of ghettos in the Holocaust.

A ghetto is a place where groups of people are kept forcibly segregated from others. The Nazis used ghettos to isolate and contain the Jewish population of occupied Europe.

What was the role of Einsatzgruppen?

The Einsatzgruppen (task forces, special action groups) were units of the Security Police and SD (the SS intelligence service) that followed the German army as it invaded and occupied countries in Europe. Often referred to as “mobile killing squads,” they are best known for their role in the systematic murder of Jews in mass shooting operations on Soviet territory.

The main targets were Communist Party and Soviet state officials, Roma, and above all Jews of any age or gender.

Name four groups of people who were targeted for execution in the Nazi death camps.

Jews were the primary targets for systematic persecution and mass murder by the Nazis and their collaborators.

The Roma and Sinti were viewed by the Nazis as the “Gypsy nuisance,” a racially “inferior” people with criminal habits. Between 250,000 and 500,000 Roma View This Term in the Glossary from across Europe were killed.

Germans with mental and physical disabilities were considered a burden on German society and the state. Approximately 250,000 people were killed in the so-called Euthanasia Program dedicated to eliminating this perceived problem.

Homosexuals—gay men—were viewed by the Nazis as socially “deviant.” The Nazis considered them a danger to Nazi policies aimed at raising the German birthrate.

Poles were viewed in Nazi ideology as “subhumans” occupying lands vital to Germany. The Nazis aimed to prevent organized Polish resistance following Germany’s invasion of Poland in September 1939. As part of this policy, Nazi forces killed or imprisoned tens of thousands of men and women from the Polish elites.