Period 8 C&B & Period 9

"I Have a Dream" speech

Definition: Famous speech given by Martin Luther King Jr. during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963.

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Significance: Considered one of the most important speeches in American history, as it inspired the Civil Rights Movement and contributed to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

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Alfred Kinsey

Definition: American biologist and sexologist known for his pioneering research on human sexuality

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Significance: His studies challenged prevailing social norms and taboos around sexuality and helped promote greater openness and understanding of sexual diversity.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act

Definition: U.S. federal law passed in 1978 that provides legal protection for the practice of traditional Native American religions and cultural ceremonies

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Significance: Significant because it recognized the importance of indigenous spiritual practices and helped address centuries of oppression and persecution against Native American communities.

Angela Davis

Definition: American activist and scholar known for her involvement in the Black Power and feminist movements, as well as her controversial prosecution and eventual acquittal on charges of conspiracy and murder

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Significance: Her work and activism have helped advance the cause of social justice and challenged prevailing notions of race, gender, and class in American society.

Baker v. Carr

Definition: Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1962) that established the principle of "one person, one vote" and helped end the practice of gerrymandering

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Significance: Significant because it ensured that electoral districts were drawn in a way that more accurately reflected the population and prevented the manipulation of voting results for political gain.

Bayard Rustin

Definition: African American civil rights activist and organizer who played a key role in the March on Washington and other nonviolent protests

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Significance: African American civil rights activist and organizer who played a key role in the March on Washington and other nonviolent protests

Betty Friedan/The Feminine Mystique

Definition: Book written by Betty Friedan in 1963 that helped launch the feminist movement in the United States

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Significance: Significant because it challenged traditional gender roles and provided a platform for women to demand greater social and political rights and opportunities.

Black Panthers

Definition: Black nationalist and socialist organization founded in 1966 that advocated for armed self-defense and community empowerment in African American neighborhoods

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Significance: Significant because it represented a radical departure from traditional civil rights strategies and raised awareness about police brutality and institutional racism.

Black Power Movement

Definition: Social and political movement that emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s, advocating for African American self-determination and empowerment

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Significance: Significant because it challenged the assimilationist approach of mainstream civil rights groups and emphasized the importance of black pride and cultural identity.

Chicago convention

Definition: The 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, which was marked by violent clashes between anti-war protesters and police

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Significance: Significant because it exposed deep divisions within the Democratic Party and reflected the growing social unrest and disillusionment of the time.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Definition: Landmark U.S. federal law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, and ended segregation in public places and employment

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Significance: One of the most significant pieces of legislation in American history, as it helped dismantle legal segregation and paved the way for greater civil rights protections for all Americans.

COINTELPRO

Definition: Secret FBI program (1956-1971) aimed at disrupting and discrediting political organizations deemed "subversive" or "radical" by the government

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Significance: Significant because it violated civil liberties and constitutional rights, and undermined the democratic principles of free speech and dissent.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

Definition: African American civil rights organization founded in 1942 that advocated for nonviolent direct action and desegregation

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Significance: Significant because it played a key role in many landmark civil rights campaigns, such as

Conscientious objectors

Definition: Individuals who refuse to participate in war or other military activities on moral or religious grounds

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Significance: Significant because they raise important questions about the ethics of war and the role of individual conscience in matters of national defense.

Counterculture

Definition: Cultural movement of the 1960s and 1970s that rejected mainstream values and embraced alternative lifestyles, music, and art

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Significance: Significant because it challenged traditional social norms and helped give rise to new forms of artistic expression and social activism.

De facto vs. de jure segregation

Definition: De facto segregation refers to segregation that occurs as a result of societal norms and practices, while de jure segregation refers to segregation that is enforced by law or government policy

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Significance: Significant because understanding the difference between these two types of segregation is important for understanding the history of discrimination and inequality in the United States.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965)

Definition: U.S. federal law that provided funding for public schools and aimed to address educational disparities and promote equal access to education

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Significance: Significant because it represented a major federal investment in education and helped to reduce educational inequalities based on race and socioeconomic status.

Elijah Muhammad

Definition: Leader of the Nation of Islam from 1934 to 1975

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Significance: Significant because he played a key role in promoting Black nationalism and empowering African American communities, although his controversial views and practices were also criticized by many civil rights activists.

Engel v. Vitale

Definition: Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1962) that declared school-sponsored prayer in public schools to be unconstitutional

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Significance: Significant because it strengthened the separation of church and state and helped protect individual liberties against government intrusion.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

Definition: U.S. federal agency responsible for enforcing anti-discrimination laws in the workplace

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Significance: Significant because it helps to ensure that all individuals have equal access to job opportunities and are protected against discrimination based on factors such as race, gender, and religion.

Equal Pay Act (1963)

Definition: U.S. federal law that requires employers to pay men and women equal wages for equal work

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Significance: Significant because it helped address gender-based wage discrimination and promote greater gender equality in the workplace.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

Definition: Proposed U.S. constitutional amendment that would guarantee equal rights under the law regardless of gender

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Significance: Significant because it sparked a nationwide debate about gender equality and helped advance the cause of women's rights, although it was ultimately not ratified.

Escobedo v. Illinois

Definition: Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1964) that established the right of individuals to have legal counsel present during police interrogations

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Significance: Significant because it strengthened the protections against self-incrimination and helped ensure that individuals are afforded due process under the law.

Fred Shuttlesworth

Definition: African American civil rights activist and Baptist minister who co-founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

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Significance: Significant because he played a key role in many civil rights campaigns, including the Birmingham campaign, and was a powerful advocate for nonviolent resistance.

George McGovern

Definition: U.S. Senator and Democratic presidential candidate in 1972 who campaigned on a platform of anti-war and social justice issues

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Significance: Significant because his campaign mobilized a new generation of young voters and helped shift the Democratic Party's priorities towards progressive causes.

George Wallace

Definition: American politician and segregationist who served as governor of Alabama and ran for president multiple times

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Significance: Significant because he represented the forces of white supremacy and resistance to civil rights reforms, and his candidacy polarized American politics along racial lines.

Gideon v. Wainwright

Definition: Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1963) that established the right of criminal defendants to have legal counsel appointed to them if they cannot afford one

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Significance: Significant because it strengthened the right to a fair trial and helped ensure that individuals are afforded due process under the law.

Gloria Steinem

Definition: American feminist, journalist, and social activist who helped found the National Women's Political Caucus and Ms. magazine

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Significance: Significant because she played a key role in advancing the feminist movement and promoting greater gender equality in American society.

Great Society

Definition: A set of domestic policies and programs proposed by President Lyndon B. Johnson that aimed to eradicate poverty and promote social justice in the United States

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Significance: Significant because it led to the passage of numerous landmark social welfare and civil rights laws, including Medicare and Medicaid, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Griswold v. Connecticut

Definition: Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1965) that established the right to privacy as a constitutional right

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Significance: Significant because it paved the way for future Supreme Court decisions on reproductive rights and helped protect individual liberties against government intrusion.

Helsinki Summit

Definition: Meeting between U.S. President Gerald Ford and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev in Helsinki, Finland in 1975

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Significance: Significant because it helped reduce tensions between the two superpowers and led to the signing of the Helsinki Accords, which included provisions on human rights and international cooperation.

Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act

Definition: U.S. federal law passed in 1975 that gives Native American tribes greater control over their own affairs and resources

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Significance: Significant because it helped promote greater self-determination and sovereignty for indigenous communities, and recognized their unique cultural heritage and rights.

James Meredith

Definition: African American civil rights activist who in 1962 became the first African American student to attend the University of Mississippi

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Significance: Significant because his enrollment sparked violent protests and federal intervention, and represented a major victory in the struggle for desegregation in higher education.

Kent State massacre

Definition: Shooting of unarmed college students by National Guardsmen during a Vietnam War protest on May 4, 1970

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Significance: Significant because it was a turning point in the anti-war movement and sparked nationwide outrage, leading to a temporary shutdown of hundreds of universities and colleges across the United States.

Kerner Commission

Definition: Officially known as the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, it was established by President Lyndon B. Johnson to investigate the causes of the 1967 race riots

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Significance: Significant because it concluded that racism and economic inequality were major causes of the riots and called for sweeping reforms to address these issues, which helped to shape public policy in the following years.

Louis Farrakhan

Definition: Leader of the Nation of Islam from 1978 to 2021

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Significance: Significant because he continued the work of Elijah Muhammad and advocated for Black empowerment and self-determination, although his views and comments were often controversial and divisive.

Lyndon B. Johnson

Definition: 36th President of the United States (1963-1969) who oversaw major reforms including the Civil Rights Act and the Great Society programs

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Significance: Significant because he helped to push through some of the most transformative legislation in U.S. history, but his presidency was also marked by controversies such as the Vietnam War.

Malcolm X

Definition: Civil rights leader who advocated for Black nationalism and self-defense, but later became more moderate and embraced a broader vision of racial unity and human rights

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Significance: Significant because he challenged traditional civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and helped to inspire a new generation of activists, although his radical views also made him a controversial figure.

Mapp v. Ohio

Definition: Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1961) that established the exclusionary rule, which prohibits the use of evidence obtained through unconstitutional searches and seizures

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Significance: Significant because it strengthened Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable searches and seizures and helped to ensure the integrity of the criminal justice system.

March to Montgomery

Definition: Protest march led by Martin Luther King Jr. from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama in 1965 to demand voting rights for African Americans

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Significance: Significant because it helped to galvanize public support for the Civil Rights Movement and led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act later that year.

Martin Luther King Jr.

Definition: Civil rights leader who advocated for nonviolent resistance and played a key role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the March on Washington, and the Selma to Montgomery March

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Significance: Significant because he helped to transform the Civil Rights Movement into a mass movement for social justice and inspired generations of activists, although his assassination in 1968 also highlighted the violence and divisions in American society.

Miranda v. Arizona

Definition: Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1966) that established the requirement for police to inform suspects of their rights to remain silent and to have legal counsel during interrogations

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Significance: Significant because it strengthened Fifth and Sixth Amendment protections for criminal defendants and helped to ensure fairness in the criminal justice system.

Muhammad Ali

Definition: American boxer and civil rights activist who refused to be drafted into the Vietnam War on religious grounds, resulting in a controversial conviction for draft evasion

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Significance: Significant because he stood up for his principles and helped to bring attention to the issue of racial inequality and the Vietnam War, even at the cost of his boxing career and personal freedom.

National Organization for Women (NOW)

Definition: Feminist organization founded in 1966 that advocates for women's rights, including reproductive rights, equal pay, and workplace equality

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Significance: Significant because it helped to bring attention to issues of gender inequality and has been a leading voice for women's rights and gender justice for over half a century.

New Left

Definition: Political and social movement that emerged in the 1960s as a response to the Vietnam War, civil rights struggles, and broader cultural changes, and rejected traditional liberal and conservative ideologies

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Significance: Significant because it helped to inspire new forms of activism, cultural critique, and political engagement, although it also faced criticism for its sometimes radical and divisive tactics.

New York Radical Women

Definition: Feminist group formed in 1967 that aimed to promote women's liberation and challenge traditional gender roles

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Significance: Significant because it helped to spark a new wave of feminist activism and raise awareness about issues such as reproductive rights and gender equality.

Occupation of Alcatraz

Definition: Native American protest that involved the occupation of the former Alcatraz federal prison in San Francisco Bay from 1969 to 1971

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Significance: Significant because it drew attention to the issues of Native American land rights and cultural sovereignty, and helped to inspire other indigenous rights movements across the country.

Ralph Abernathy

Definition: Civil rights leader and close associate of Martin Luther King Jr. who co-founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference

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Significance: Significant because he played a key role in the civil rights movement and continued to advocate for social justice after King's assassination.

Robert Kennedy

Definition: U.S. Senator and Attorney General who was assassinated in 1968 while campaigning for the Democratic nomination for President

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Significance: Significant because he was a prominent political figure during a tumultuous period in American history and his death had a significant impact on the country

Roe v. Wade

Definition:

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Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1973) that legalized abortion nationwide

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Significance: Significant because it represented a major victory for reproductive rights and helped to establish a woman's right to make decisions about her own body.

Sexual revolution

Definition: Social and cultural movement of the 1960s and 1970s that challenged traditional sexual norms and advocated for greater sexual freedom

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Significance: Significant because it helped to break down taboos around sex and sexuality, and contributed to the rise of new forms of feminist and LGBTQ+ activism.

Second Battle of Wounded Knee

Definition: Armed standoff between Native American activists and federal authorities that took place in 1973 on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota

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Significance: Significant because it drew attention to the ongoing struggles of Native American communities and highlighted the government's mistreatment and neglect of indigenous peoples.

Stokely Carmichael

Definition: Civil rights activist and leader of the Black Power movement who coined the term "Black Power"

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Significance: Significant because he helped to shift the focus of the civil rights movement towards issues of Black self-determination and political empowerment.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Definition: Civil rights organization founded in 1960 that aimed to coordinate and support student-led protests against racial segregation

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Significance: Significant because it played a key role in the civil rights movement and helped to inspire a new generation of activists.

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

Definition: Left-wing student organization founded in 1960 that advocated for greater political participation and social justice

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Significance: Significant because it was a major force in the student activism of the 1960s and helped to inspire new forms of political engagement and social change.

Title IX

Definition: U.S. federal law (1972) that prohibits sex-based discrimination in education programs and activities that receive federal funding

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Significance: Significant because it helped to promote gender equality in education and athletics and has had a broad impact on women's access to education and opportunities.

CWNY

Definition: The Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren (1953-1969) known for its progressive decisions on civil rights, free speech, and criminal justice

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Significance: Significant because it transformed the legal landscape of the United States and helped to expand individual liberties and rights.

Watts riots

Definition: A series of riots in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles in 1965 sparked by police brutality and longstanding racial tensions

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Significance: Significant because they highlighted the deep-seated social and economic inequalities facing African American communities and contributed to the broader Civil Rights Movement.

Weathermen

Definition: A radical left-wing organization that emerged from the Students for a Democratic Society in the late 1960s, advocating for violent revolution against the U.S. government

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Significance: Significant because they represented a more extreme faction of the anti-war and countercultural movements and contributed to debates about the limits of protest and the role of violence in political change.

Woodstock

Definition: A three-day music festival held in upstate New York in 1969 that attracted hundreds of thousands of young people and became a symbol of the countercultural movement

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Significance: Significant because it helped to popularize new forms of music and art and represented a cultural shift away from mainstream values and traditions.

Camp David Accords

Definition: A 1978 peace agreement between Israel and Egypt brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter

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Significance: Significant because it represented a major breakthrough in Middle East diplomacy and helped to stabilize the region.

Clean Air Act of 1970

Definition: U.S. federal law that established national air quality standards and aimed to reduce air pollution

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Significance: Significant because it was one of the first major environmental laws in the United States and helped to improve public health and protect the environment.

Department of Energy

Definition: Energy U.S. federal agency responsible for energy policy and research

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Significance: Significant because it helps to promote energy security and sustainability and supports scientific research on energy-related issues.

End of US involvement in Vietnam

Definition: The withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam in 1973, following years of military conflict and political controversy

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Significance: Significant because it marked the end of a divisive and costly war and contributed to a period of reflection and reassessment in U.S. foreign policy.

Environmental Protection Agency

Definition: U.S. federal agency responsible for protecting human health and the environment through regulation and enforcement of environmental laws

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Significance: Significant because it helps to safeguard public health and natural resources and has played a key role in shaping environmental policy in the United States.

George McGovern

Definition: A U.S. Senator from South Dakota and Democratic presidential candidate in 1972 known for his progressive platform and anti-war stance

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Significance: Significant because he represented a more liberal and reform-oriented wing of the Democratic Party and contributed to debates about the role of government in promoting social justice and equality.

George Wallace

Definition: A segregationist politician from Alabama who ran for president in 1968 and is known for his opposition to civil rights and support for states' rights

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Significance: Significant because he represented a more extreme and reactionary wing of the Democratic Party and contributed to debates about race, politics, and the future of the United States.

Helsinki Summit

Definition: A meeting between leaders of the U.S. and the Soviet Union in 1975 aimed at improving relations between the two superpowers.

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Significance: Significant because it led to the Helsinki Accords, which established guidelines for international relations and human rights that were widely accepted and promoted peace and stability.

Henry Kissinger

Definition: U.S. Secretary of State under President Nixon who played a key role in shaping American foreign policy during the Cold War.

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Significance: Significant because he was known for his realpolitik approach to foreign affairs, which prioritized national interests over moral considerations and helped to reshape U.S. relations with countries such as China and the Soviet Union.

Invasion of Cambodia

Definition: A military operation in which U.S. forces entered Cambodia in 1970 to disrupt North Vietnamese supply lines during the Vietnam War.

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Significance: Significant because it provoked widespread protests and criticism of President Nixon's handling of the war, leading to increased opposition to the conflict and calls for U.S. withdrawal.

Leonid Brezhnev

Definition: General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982.

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Significance: Significant because he oversaw a period of relative stability and détente in Soviet-American relations, but also pursued an aggressive foreign policy that included military interventions in Afghanistan and other countries.

National Environmental Policy Act

Definition: U.S. federal law passed in 1969 that requires federal agencies to consider the environmental impact of their actions and to involve the public in decision-making related to environmental issues.

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Significance: Significant because it helped to increase public awareness and concern about environmental issues and paved the way for further environmental legislation and regulation.

Nixon Court

Definition: The U.S. Supreme Court during the presidency of Richard Nixon, which saw a shift towards conservatism and a focus on individual rights and liberties.

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Significance: Significant because it issued several landmark decisions on issues such as abortion, affirmative action, and executive power that shaped American law and politics for decades to come.

Pentagon Papers published

Definition: A leaked government report on U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, published by the New York Times in 1971.

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Significance: Significant because it revealed the extent of government deception and the lack of a clear strategy in the war, leading to increased opposition and calls for accountability and transparency.

Richard Nixon

Definition: 37th President of the United States, known for his controversial foreign policy and involvement in the Watergate scandal.

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Significance: Significant because he oversaw a period of significant political and social change, including the end of the Vietnam War, the rise of conservative politics, and a growing distrust of government.

SALT I and II Treaty

Definition: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks between the U.S. and the Soviet Union aimed at limiting nuclear weapons and promoting stability during the Cold War.

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Significance: Significant because they represented a major step towards arms control and helped to ease tensions between the two superpowers, although they were also criticized for not going far enough in reducing the risk of nuclear war.

Saturday Night Massacre

Definition: A series of events in 1973 in which President Nixon fired the special prosecutor investigating the Watergate scandal, leading to the resignations of several top government officials.

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Significance: Significant because it sparked a constitutional crisis and raised serious questions about the rule of law and the role of the executive branch in American government.

Spiro Agnew

Definition: Vice President of the United States under Richard Nixon, who resigned in 1973 after being charged with bribery and tax evasion.

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Significance: Significant because his resignation paved the way for the appointment of Gerald Ford as Vice President, and highlighted issues of corruption and accountability in government.

Three Mile Island disaster

Definition: Nuclear accident that occurred in Pennsylvania in 1979, resulting in the release of radioactive materials

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Significance: Significant because it led to increased scrutiny of nuclear power plants and raised concerns about the safety of nuclear energy.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment

Definition: U.S. constitutional amendment ratified in 1971 that lowered the voting age from 21 to 18

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Significance: Significant because it expanded the right to vote to millions of young Americans and helped to increase youth participation in politics.

Viet Cong

Definition: Communist guerrilla group that fought against the South Vietnamese government and its allies during the Vietnam War

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Significance: Significant because their tactics, including hit-and-run attacks and booby traps, were effective in wearing down the opposition and helped to prolong the war.

Vietnam peace settlement

Definition: Agreement signed in 1973 that aimed to end the Vietnam War and establish peace in the region

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Significance: Significant because it marked the beginning of the end of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, although the peace was short-lived and fighting continued until the fall of Saigon in 1975.

War Powers Act of 1973

Definition: U.S. federal law that requires the President to consult with Congress before deploying military forces and imposes limits on the President's power to wage war without congressional approval

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Significance: Significant because it helped to restore the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches of government and increased congressional oversight of military actions.

Watergate

Definition: Political scandal that occurred during the Nixon administration, involving the break-in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters and subsequent cover-up by Nixon and his administration

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Significance: Significant because it led to Nixon's resignation and increased public distrust of government and politicians.

"white backlash"

Definition: Term used to describe the backlash against civil rights progress by some white Americans, particularly in response to affirmative action and other policies that aimed to promote racial equality

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Significance: Significant because it highlights the resistance to change and the ongoing struggles for racial justice and equality in the United States.

William Rehnquist

Definition: U.S. Supreme Court Justice who served from 1972 to 2005 and was known for his conservative views

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Significance: Significant because he played a key role in shaping U.S. legal policy on issues such as abortion, civil rights, and presidential power.

“tear down this wall”

Definition: Famous phrase from a speech given by President Reagan in 1987 in which he called for the removal of the Berlin Wall that separated East and West Germany

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Significance: Significant because it represented a strong symbolic challenge to Soviet authority and helped pave the way for the eventual reunification of Germany.

“trickledown theory”

Definition: Economic theory that posits that tax cuts for the wealthy and corporations will lead to economic growth that ultimately benefits everyone in society

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Significance: Significant because it has been the subject of much debate and controversy, with some arguing that it has been used as a justification for policies that exacerbate income inequality and undermine social welfare programs.

Anita Hill

Definition: Law professor who accused Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment in 1991

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Significance: Significant because her testimony during Thomas's confirmation hearing helped to raise public awareness about sexual harassment and the importance of workplace equality.

Bill Clinton

Definition: 42nd President of the United States (1993-2001)

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Significance: Significant because he presided over a period of relative prosperity and political stability in the U.S., although his presidency was also marked by scandals and controversies.

Citizens United

Definition: Landmark Supreme Court case (2010) that struck down limits on corporate and union campaign spending, paving the way for the creation of "super PACs" and other forms of big-money political influence

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Significance: Significant because it represented a major shift in campaign finance law and has been widely criticized for allowing wealthy interests to have an outsized influence on elections.

Clarence Thomas

Definition: Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court since 1991

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Significance: Significant because his appointment and subsequent controversies surrounding his confirmation, including Anita Hill's accusations of sexual harassment, have raised important questions about the role of race, gender, and sexual politics in the judicial system.

Contras

Definition: Anti-Sandinista rebels in Nicaragua who were backed by the U.S. government during the 1980s

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Significance: Significant because their activities were part of a larger Cold War-era struggle for influence in Latin America and helped to shape U.S. foreign policy in the region.

Deregulation

Definition: The removal or reduction of government regulations and oversight of certain industries or economic activities

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Significance: Significant because it has been a major policy goal for conservatives and libertarians who argue that excessive regulation stifles innovation and economic growth, although critics contend that it can lead to environmental degradation, financial instability, and other negative consequences.

Dick Cheney

Definition: Vice President of the United States under George W. Bush from 2001 to 2009

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Significance: Significant because he was a key figure in shaping U.S. foreign and domestic policy during a period of significant geopolitical upheaval and was widely criticized for his role in advocating for the Iraq War and other controversial policies.

Donald Rumsfeld

Definition: U.S. Secretary of Defense under George W. Bush from 2001 to 2006

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Significance: Significant because he oversaw the U.S. military's response to the 9/11 attacks and the subsequent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and was a key figure in the Bush administration's controversial national security policies.

George H. W. Bush (Jr.)

Definition: 41st President of the United States (1989-1993) and father of George W. Bush

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Significance: Significant because he presided over a period of significant change in U.S. foreign and domestic policy, including the end of the Cold War, the first Gulf War, and the passage of significant civil rights legislation.

George W. Bush

Definition: 43rd President of the United States (2001-2009)

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Significance: Significant for his controversial foreign policy decisions, including the invasion of Iraq in 2003.

Gerald Ford

Definition: 38th President of the United States (1974-1977)

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Significance: Significant for his role in restoring public trust in the presidency after the Watergate scandal, although his pardoning of Nixon was controversial.

Iran-contra affair

Definition: Political scandal during the Reagan administration in which the U.S. sold weapons to Iran in exchange for hostages and used the proceeds to fund anti-communist rebels in Nicaragua

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Significance: Significant for the illegal and unethical actions taken by the Reagan administration, as well as the investigations and hearings that followed.