Early Native Cultures, European Colonization, and Colonial Conflicts

Clovis People

Early Paleo-Indians who likely migrated from Asia across the Bering Land Bridge.

Mesoamerica

Indigenous civilizations like the Olmec, Maya, and Aztec.

Cahokia

Missourian Native Americans.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian born in the late 15th century in Genoa.

Colony

European powers (Spain, England, France).

Conquistadores

Spanish soldiers and explorers like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro.

Bartolomé de Las Casas

A Dominican friar from Spain.

Encomiendas

Spanish colonists and crown officials.

Pope

A Pueblo religious leader.

Pope's Pueblo Revolt

The most successful Native uprising against European colonizers that temporarily expelled the Spanish and forced them to adopt more tolerant policies upon their return.

Mestizos

People of mixed race, typically Native American and Spanish combined, representing a new racial and social group in Spanish colonial society from the 15th century onward.

Globalization

The growing interconnection of the world's cultures and economies that originated around the 16th century during Spanish colonization, centered on the Atlantic World.

Atlantic World

A perspective that explores intermingling trade, migration, and expansion of commerce from Africa, Europe, and the Americas, starting with the Columbian Exchange in the 15th century.

Imperialism

The policy of extending a nation's power by acquiring territories or dominating others economically and politically, beginning in the 15th century in America.

Colonization

The process by which a country establishes control over a foreign territory, often by settling its own people and exploiting resources, starting in the 15th century.

Mercantilism

The belief that one person or nation could grow rich at the expense of another, utilized by European monarchies in the 16th-17th century.

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement in the 16th century that led to Protestant churches, beginning in 1517 with Martin Luther's challenge to Roman Catholic Church beliefs.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England who ruled from 1558 to 1603, re-establishing Protestantism in England and encouraging English exploration and colonization in the Americas.

Puritans

English protestants who believed the Church of England was not reformed enough and sought to purify the Church.

Purification Movement

Sought to purify the Church after 1560 until the early 17th century in England and its colonies, shaping early American religion, education, and politics with lasting influence.

Roanoke

The first English attempt to set up a colony in the US, established in 1585 on Roanoke Island, off the coast of present-day North Carolina, which failed and delayed English colonization while exposing New World challenges.

Asiento

A license or contract granted by Spain that allowed other nations to sell enslaved Africans to Spanish colonies, especially after 1713 when Britain gained the Asiento in the Treaty of Utrecht, helping to institutionalize the transatlantic slave trade.

Enslavement

The forced capture, sale, and labor of people—especially Africans—under brutal conditions from the 1500s to 1800s in the Atlantic world, across West Africa, the Caribbean, North and South America, fueling colonial economies and causing immeasurable human suffering.

Tribute

A system in which conquered peoples were forced to give goods, labor, or wealth to dominant powers, used before European arrival and adapted by the Spanish during colonization in Mesoamerica, Andes, and later Spanish colonies.

Anne Hutchinson

A woman from a substantial Boston family who challenged a religious law regarding salvation, born in 1591, began challenging the system in 1636, was convicted of heresy and sedition and banished in 1637, and died in 1643 from a Native American uprising.

Antinomianism

Belief that moral laws, such as the clerical doctrine of the covenant of grace, are non-binding to life, held by certain religious groups in the 1630s in Massachusetts Bay, providing new insights on religion and shaping religious freedom.

Bacon's Rebellion

An armed rebellion led by Nathaniel Bacon in 1676 in Virginia against the royal governor Sir William Berkley, in response to restricted House access, revealing the bitterness between rival white leaders and the potential for future instability.

Indentured Servant

White English immigrants who inked a contract to work for a set period of time in exchange for travel costs and living expenses.

Indentured Servants

Laborers who agreed to work for a certain number of years in exchange for passage to America, especially common from 1625-1648.

Jacob Leisler

A German merchant and leader of the New York rebels who opposed Governor Nicholson; rose to power in 1689 and was executed for treason in 1691.

James Oglethorpe

A general of the British Empire and founder of Georgia, who helped establish the colony as a military barrier against Spain and a refuge for the impoverished.

Jamestown

The first colony owned by Britain, established in 1607 for economic gain, revealing the harsh realities of colonization.

John Smith

An English soldier and explorer who led Jamestown and taught colonists to adapt to Native American ways for survival.

John Winthrop

A Puritan lawyer and the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, who promoted a vision of a godly community.

Tobacco Farms

Agricultural enterprises that increased in size and number, contributing to the rise of enslaved labor in Virginia by 1704.

Virginia

A Southern colony where labor demand was high and indentured servants were common before the rise of African slavery.

Governor Nicholson

The governor opposed by Jacob Leisler and his militia during the rebellion in New York.

Military Barrier

The purpose of founding Georgia, to protect British lands from Spanish expansion.

Savannah/Altamaha Rivers

The geographical area granted to James Oglethorpe to control in 1732.

First Colonial Expedition

Led by James Oglethorpe to Georgia in 1733.

Florida Outpost

A Spanish-controlled location that Oglethorpe failed to assault in 1740.

Economic Gain

The primary reason for the establishment of Jamestown, reflecting the goals of imperial expansion.

Theocracy

A system of government established by John Winthrop and other founders in Massachusetts Bay Colony, promoting religious governance.

Native American Relations

The interactions and adaptations required by colonists for survival, as emphasized by John Smith.

Religious Refugees

Individuals, including Jews and others, imported to Georgia to help it thrive.

Colonial Success

Dependent on adaptation and cooperation with local tribes, as demonstrated by the experiences in Jamestown.

Militia

A military force raised by Jacob Leisler in New York to oppose the colonial government.

Puritan Migration

The largest migration of Puritans led by John Winthrop to Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Canoes for Fishing

One of the adaptations learned by colonists from Native Americans under John Smith's guidance.

Economic Expansion

The goal of establishing colonies like Jamestown, which often led to poor planning and conflict.

Colonial Governance

The structure of power and authority in the colonies, exemplified by Leisler's brief rule in New York.

King Philip's War

One of the deadliest conflicts in colonial America, resulting in the deaths of over 3,000 Natives and 1,000 colonists, fought from 1675 to 1676 in New England colonies.

Wampanoag

Native American tribe led by chief Metacom (King Philip) during King Philip's War.

Massachusetts Bay Company

Joint-stock company that established the Massachusetts Bay Colony with both commercial and religious goals, chartered in 1628.

Mayflower Compact

An agreement to form a self-governing community based on majority rule, signed by Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower in 1620 before reaching America.

Metacom

Wampanoag chief known to the English as King Philip, leader of Native American forces during King Philip's War, beheaded in 1676.

Navigation Acts

Series of laws passed by English Parliament that restricted colonial trade to England, first passed in 1660.

Pequot War

Conflict fought between Native American tribe in New England and Connecticut settlers from 1636 to 1637, resulting in the near destruction of the Pequot tribe.

Powhatan

Powerful Native American chief and leader of the Powhatan Confederacy, active during the early 1600s, aimed to manage English presence through alliance and trade.

Nipmuck

Native American tribe that aided the Wampanoag during King Philip's War.

Pocumtuck

Native American tribe that aided the Wampanoag during King Philip's War.

Narragansett

Native American tribe that aided the Wampanoag during King Philip's War.

Charlestown

One of the new settlements established by the Massachusetts Bay Company.

Newtown

One of the new settlements established by the Massachusetts Bay Company.

Plymouth Colony

Location where the Mayflower Compact was signed, in Massachusetts.

Connecticut River Valley

Location where the Pequot War occurred.

Tidewater region of Virginia

Area where Powhatan united over 30 tribes and interacted with Jamestown settlers.

Colonialism

The practice of establishing control over indigenous people and their lands, exemplified by the actions of English settlers.

Cultural divide

The widening gap between Natives and colonists resulting from conflicts like King Philip's War.

Tribal power

The authority and influence held by Native American tribes, significantly weakened after King Philip's War.

Trade competition

The conflict arising from competition over trade and territorial expansion by colonists, notably during the Pequot War.

Self-governing community

A community that governs itself, as exemplified by the Mayflower Compact.

Majority rule

A decision-making process where the majority's preferences are followed, foundational to the Mayflower Compact.

Quakers

Members of the Society of Friends, an English Protestant sect.

Roger Williams

Puritan minister and theologian.

Rhode Island

Founded by Roger Williams and other religious dissenters.

Virginia House of Burgesses

Elected representatives from Virginia's settlements.

William Penn

English Quaker and founder of Pennsylvania.

Pocahontas

Daughter of Powhatan, leader of the Powhatan Confederacy.