The Rise of Mass Politics

Expanding Democracy

Dubbed the “age of Jackson” or the “era of the common man,” Andrew Jackson’s inauguration was monumental in shifting the political atmosphere of the 1830s-1840s in the US. One big change during this time was many western states giving any white man the right to vote, regardless of status, wealth, or property. This led to more voting eligibility across the nation.

• Andrew Jackson: the seventh President of the United States, Jackson oversaw a major political change in the 1830s-1840s and pushed for the common grounds of all men, with the focus to shift wealth and property away from elite aristocrats in the east

• Dorr rebellion: “Dorrites” being captured by Rhode Island officials rebelled against them in the name of Thomas L. Dorr’s “People’s party,” and their new constitution set up with Dorr as governor

Tocqueville and Democracy in America

Alexis de Tocqueville and his published book were a distinct example of the “slice of life” aspect of what the US was really like during this time period. He also pointed out that Black people and Native Americans were discriminated against in the system of the “white man’s” democracy.

• Alexis de Tocqueville: French aristocrat, he spent two years in the United States in the 1830s watching the dramatic political changes in the age of Andrew Jackson. The French government had requested that he make a study of American prisons, but Tocqueville quickly went far beyond the study of imprisonment and wrote a classic study of American life, titled Democracy in America

The Legitimization of Party

The high level of voter participation was partly thanks to an expanded electorate. However, the political parties taking rise during this time were an essential factor to this trend. The idea of popular voting and the power of the people was especially prevalent in the expansion and growth of parties in the US.

• Whigs: anti-Jackson forces, who believed in stronger nationalist policies, industrialist and capitalist expansion, and opposed the Democrats

Debating the Past: Jacksonian Democracy

Many historians over time have debated how Jackson’s term and time period has influenced us today and what the true implications of his reign were. Some argued that Jackson was a true champion of his era in expanding capitalist ideals and opportunities, while other say his cause was “one of enterpriser against capitalist.”

President of the Common People

Jackson’s party had less organization and common ideals, but was based on the principles of the government offering “equal protection and equal benefits” to all its white male citizens. However, to do this he continuously oppressed Black and enslaved people, women, and Native American tribes to get what he wanted.

• spoils system: the concept that “to the victors belong the spoils,” Jackson implemented patronage, the process of giving out jobs to his cabinet and in government as political rewards

“Our Federal Union”

Calhoun and Nullification

As recently appointed Vice President of the US, John C. Calhoun made some controversial moves during his term. As South Carolina’s economy stagnated, some threatened secession. To fix this, he implemented nullifcation, which was highly controversial to opposing political parties, such as the Whigs.

• John C. Calhoun: Jackson’s Vice President, introduced nullification, and an outspoken protectionist

• nullifcation: the states were the final arbiters of the constitutionality of federal laws, so if a state concluded that Congress had passed an unconstitutional law, then it could hold a special convention and declare a federal law null and void within the state

• Martin Van Buren: served as governor of New York, became Jackson’s secretary of state in 1829, became an insider and trusted ally of Jackson

The Rise of Van Buren

Martin Van Buren gained popularity in the cabinet as well as with the president Andrew Jackson himself, after John C. Calhoun and Jackson were on bad terms over a fight. This led to Van Buren being Jackson’s preferred successor over Calhoun.

The Webster-Hayne Debate

Robert Y. Hayne, a young senator from South Carolina, charged that slowing down the growth in the West was a way fro the East to retain its political and economic power. He rallied strong support for the South and West to ally with each other against the East. Daniel Webster strongly opposed this, and even went so far as to write complete counterarguments bashing Hayne for his outlandish arguments.

• Daniel Webster: a Massachusetts senator, attacked Hayne for claims against the East, crafted “Second Reply to Hayne” during these arguments

• Webster-Hayne-debate: the exchange over federal versus state power between senators Robert Y. Hayne and Daniel Webster

The Nullification Crisis

South Carolina reached another point of exasperation with tariffs on goods, calling their legislature to forbid the collection of duties within the state through the process of nullification. Jackson insisted this was treason, and strengthened federal forts and military presence in South Carolina to combat this. However, Henry Clay was able to propose an amendment and this gradually dissolved tensions in the area.

The Removal of the Indians

White Attitudes Toward the Tribes

Many white people in the 1700s had shared Jefferson’s view of Native Americans as “noble savages,” where they were savage but could be conditioned into white society. However, by the turn of the century, many (including Jackson) saw them as just “savages” who should be removed entirely from the US and its surrounding territory.

• Black Hawk War: Black Hawk’s forces fought white settlers in 1831-1832 to overturn the illegal cession of tribal lands to the US, however white forces attacked them even when they attempted to surrender, and ended up pursuing and slaughtering most of them

The “Five Civilized Tribes”

Southerners set on expanding their cotton empire saw Native American tribes in the South as just another obstacle to remove. This was exhibited with the rapid approval of the Indian Removal Act. The Cherokees protested this especially, most famously winning the case of Worcester v. Georgia. However, despite constant backlash from the tribes, they were all eventually removed to reservations out West.

• “Five Civilized Tribes”: the Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Chickasaws, and Choctaws who had adopted literacy, organized government, laws, agricultural economies, and even slavery after years of being exposed to and coerced by white society

• Indian Removal Act: to accelerate the efforts to removed the “Five Civilized Tribes” to the West, Congress passed this act to authorize the financing of federal negotiations to relocate the tribes

Consider the Source: Letter from Chief John Ross

Chief John Ross writes a letter to the Senate and House of Representatives expressing the illegitimacy of the treaty signed that would remove the Cherokee from their lands. He also expressed his extreme discontent and heartbreak at the poor treatment of his people by the US government, saying that unprincipled men or coercing them to abandon their land and their rights.

Trail of Tears

The long, forced trek far west made by Native Americans pushed off their lands. Thousands of people died on the journey, unprepared and facing tough conditions during traveling. All Five Civilized Tribes were forced to journey west on the Trail of Tears to some unwanted location, and virtually all suffered because of this.

• “Indian Territory”: land that later became Oklahoma set aside for Native Americans as they were forced out West on the Trail of Tears

• Trail of Tears: thousands, perhaps a quarter or more of the émigré Native Americans, perished before reaching their unwanted destination in the harsh new reservations, and the survivors remembered the terrible journey as “The Trail Where They Cried”

The Meaning of Removal

Over 100 million acres of land had been ceded by Native American tribes to the government by the end of the 1830s. Their mistreatment was unnecessarily rough and unjust. Many societies in the Pacific Northwest, parts of Texas and California, and white newcomers had found peaceful coexistence and trade. However, the removal exemplified the often cruel and exploitative nature of white settlers and government.

Jackson and The Bank War

Biddle’s Institution

The Bank of the United States had a financial monopoly, which scared some people who opposed a strong federal government. Andrew Jackson was among the opposers of the monopoly the federal Bank had secured. Many advocated over “soft money” and “hard money” factors. Hard-money faction, including Jackson, believed gold or silver coin (specie) was the only safe currency.

• Nicholas Biddle: ran the Bank from 1823 on, had done much to put the institution on a sound and prosperous basis through federal deposits, providing credit to growing enterprises, issuing banknotes, exercising a restraining effect on the less well-managed state banks

• Bank War: Clay, Webster, and other advisers persuaded Biddle to apply to Congress for a recharter bill in 1832, four years ahead of the expiration date. Congress passed the recharter bill, Jackson vetoed it, and the Bank’s supporters in Congress failed to override the veto

The “Monster” Destroyed

Jackson attempted to eddy away at the powers of the Bank, even before the expiration of its charter in 1836. He weakened it by removing the government’s deposit from the Bank. Jackson ended up going to great lengths to get rid of what he considered a threat, firing two secretaries of treasury until Taney agreed to help Jackson’s plan. As the federal government drew money out of the Bank and the charter expired without being renewed, the country was left with a fragmented and chronically unstable banking system that would plague the economy and financial landscape of the US for years.

• Roger B. Taney: the attorney general, appointed by Jackson as his secretary of treasury, a close friend and ally of the president

The Changing Face of American Politics

Democrats and Whigs

The second, and shortly lived at that, two-party system of America emerged during this time period. Andrew Jackson led the Democratic party with the main beliefs that the federal government should be limited in power, except to the degree that it worked to eliminate social and economic agreements that entrenched privilege and stifled opportunity. Jackson and his followers championed “honest workers,” “simple famers,” and “forthright businessmen.” Whiggery, the philosophy associated with the Whigs, favored federal power and industrial and commercial benefit. They were also cautious about westward expansion as they thought it would hurt more economic and institutional growth. Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun were among the most notable figures associated with the Whig party.

Politics After Jackson

Van Buren and the Panic of 1837

Martin Van Buren, deemed a strong candidate for presidency by Andrew Jackson, was elected in 1836. He was elected amidst a nationwide economic boom, where prices were rising, credit was plentiful, and land business was profitable. From 1835-1837, the government was also out of debt and had a sizable surplus in the Treasury. However, set up by Jackson and the implications bleeding into Van Buren’s presidency, an economic depression took a turn for the worse in 1837 as banks and businesses failed, unemployment grew, prices fell, and riots ensued in multiple cities.

• specie circular: an executive order issued by Jackson, it provided that in payment for public lands, the government would accept only gold or silver coins or currency backed by gold and silver

• Panic of 1837: the worst depression in American history to that point, lasting for five years, proved to be a political catastrophe for Van Buren and the Democrats

The Log Cabin Campaign

In 1840, the Whigs finally settled on one candidate for the presidential election, William Henry Harrison (over Henry Clay). The Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren again. Newspapers and general public started to release info about the election and gain interest in egalitarian beliefs and politics.

• William Henry Harrison: a Whig candidate for president in 1840, a renowned soldier and popular national figure. Harrison defeated

Patterns of Popular Culture: The Penny Press

A small newspaper in New York City, the Sun, published in 1833 included trivial news and events. However, its price only a penny, it began to sell to the “everyday,” average, ordinary American citizen. The hike in literacy rates, increasing education, and interest in public affairs expanded newspapers and the foundation of journalism in the US which grew rapidly in the 1820s-1840s.

The Frustration of the Whigs

The Whigs had trouble asserting political dominance and stability, particularly after their candidate, Harrison, died a month into his first term as president. As John Tyler took over, his former support of the Democrats complicated policies and stances he took on issues that directly went against the Whig party’s beliefs. This led to Tyler leaving his spot and appointing a new cabinet after many walked out due to disagreements with his decision making.

• John Tyler: politician from Virginia, William Henry Harrison’s Vice President who took office a month after Harrison died of pneumonia

Whig Diplomacy

Anti-British factions in Canada caused trouble in the north of the US. Rebels from an unsuccessful rebellion took refuge close to the Canada-US border. This created tensions as British attacks against the rebels accidentally harmed American citizens as well. Other territories, such as the Bahamas, where a ship captured during a slave revolt transported freed slaves to the Bahamas and the British refused to capture and return them back to US territory. Treaties between the British and Americans were made to resolve this conflict, creating a majority of the border to what is now modern day Canada.

• Webster-Ashburton Treaty: made in 1842 after territorial conflicts with the British in Canada, it agreed that the United States would receive slightly more than half the disputed area and agreed to a northern boundary as far west as the Rocky mountains

Conclusion

Comprehension Questions

1. What was Andrew Jackson’s political philosophy, and how was it reflected in the policies and actions of his administration?

2. Who benefited under Jacksonian democracy? Who suffered?

3. How did Andrew Jackson change the office of the presidency?

4. Who supported and who opposed the Bank of the United States, and why? Who was right?

5. How and why did white attitudes toward Native Americans change, and how did these changes lead to the Indian Removal Act and the Trail of Tears?

6. How did Native Americans in the Southeast respond to white efforts to seize their land and remove them to the West?