research methods study guide2 for exam 3

Empiricism

Knowledge based on observation.

Basic Research

Research aimed at understanding fundamental principles.

Applied Research

Research aimed at solving real-world problems.

Sections of an empirical article

Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, References.

Research vs. Personal Experience

Research is controlled, systematic, and less biased.

Frequency Claim

Describes the rate or level of a variable.

Association Claim

Describes the relationship between two variables.

Causal Claim

Claims that one variable causes another.

Conceptual Definition

Defines an idea or theory.

Operational Definition

Defines how a concept is measured or tested.

Belmont Report

A report outlining ethical principles in research: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.

Respect for Persons

Informed consent is essential.

Beneficence

The principle of doing no harm.

Justice

Fairness in participant selection.

Reliability

Consistency of a measure, including test-retest, interrater, and internal reliability.

Validity

The extent to which a concept is measured accurately, including face, content, criterion, convergent, and discriminant validity.

Response Sets

Tendency to respond in patterned ways.

Observer Bias

Researcher's expectations that skew results.

Reactivity

Behavior changes when participants know they are being observed.

Probability Sampling

Random sampling that produces a representative sample.

Non-Probability Sampling

Sampling methods like convenience and quota sampling.

Directional Problem

Issues regarding the direction of the relationship in correlational research.

Third-variable Problem

An unaccounted-for variable that influences both variables in a study.

Statistical Validity

Concerns include sample size, effect size, outliers, and restriction of range.

Multivariate Research

Research involving multiple variables.

Cross-sectional Correlation

Different variables measured at the same time.

Autocorrelation

Same variable measured at different times.

Cross-lag Correlation

Different variables measured at different times.

Regression Analysis

Statistical method to understand relationships and control for third variables.

Regression Equation

Y = a + bX; where Y is the outcome variable, X is the predictor variable, a is the intercept, and b is the slope.

Beta Coefficients (β)

Provide information on the strength and direction of effects in regression.

Internal Validity

Validity when third variables are ruled out.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured in an experiment.

Causal Criteria

Includes covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity.

Design Types: Independent-groups

Includes posttest-only and pretest/posttest designs.

Within-groups Design

Includes repeated-measures and concurrent measures.

Design Confounds

Variables that vary systematically with the IV, threatening internal validity.

Selection Effects

Differences in participants that may skew results, mitigated by random assignment.

Order Effects

Effects that occur in within-groups designs due to the sequence of conditions.

Counterbalancing

Technique to control for order effects by varying the order of conditions.

Control Variable

Variable that is held constant to isolate the IV's effect.

Cohen’s d

A measure of effect size.

Confidence Interval

Range that indicates statistical significance when it excludes 0.

Observer Bias (Threats)

Skewing of results due to researcher expectations, mitigated by masked design.

Demand Characteristics

Participants’ guesses about the purpose of the study affecting their behavior.

Placebo Effects

Changes in outcomes that result from participants' expectations of an intervention.

Regression to the Mean

Extreme scores tend to move closer to the average upon retesting.

Statistical Power

Probability of detecting an effect if one exists, increased by minimizing variation and increasing sample size.