AP Psychology Unit 1

vocab/key terms

structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind

functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

level of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

biological psychology

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

evolutionary psychology

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communication

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

developmental psychology

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

human factors psychology

the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system, which led him to criticize what he saw as Plato's metaphysical excesses, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry.

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Mary Whiton Calkins

first female president of the APA (1905); a student of William James; denied the PhD she earned from Harvard because of her sex (later, posthumously, it was granted to her)

Margaret Floy Washburn

first female to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 2nd president of the APA (1921)

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated--the variable whose effect is being studied

dependent variables

the outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

scatter plot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. the correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variable

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. ex: human intelligence -- what an intelligence test measures

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

population

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

sample

items selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population

placebo

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

placebo effect

any effect that seems to be a consequence of administering a placebo

experimental group

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

longitudinal study

researchers follow the same subjects over an extended period of time

confirmation bias

experimenter might consciously or unconsciously look to confirm what they already believe about their hypothesis

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

bimodal distribution

a frequency distribution having two different values that are heavily populated with cases

statistical inference

The process of using data obtained from a sample to make estimates or test hypotheses about the characteristics of a population

American Psychological Association (APA)

world's largest association of psychologists with around 152,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students

null hypothesis

the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error

p-value

the probability of results of the experiment being attributed to chance