Forensic Psychology

Culture

What is a crime in one place may not be judged as such in another

E.g. multiple wives = bigamy in UK (crime) but permitted in Muslim cultures

History

Crime in one era may not be in another

E.g. homosexuality decriminalised, teachers used to be able to hit pupils

Age

A factor that determines whether an individual can be prosecuted by setting a legal limit

Special circumstances

A factor that may reduce responsibility for criminal actions. Eg murder and self defence

Official Statistics

Government records of total number of crimes reported to police and recorded

Victim Surveys

Record peoples experience of crime over specific period

50,000

Number of randomly selected households to answer The Crime Survey for England and Wales

Offender Surveys

Individuals volunteering details of the number and types of crime they have committed

Self-report indicators of repeat offending

Trends in prevalence of drugs and alcohol

Offender Profiling

Investigative tool used when solving crimes

Aims to narrow field of enquiry and list of likely suspects

Compiling profile by careful scrutiny of crime scene and analysis of evidence, generates hypothesis on characteristics of offender

top-down approach

Developed from in-depth interviews of 36 sexually motivated serial killers

Match what is known about crime and offender to pre-existing template, murderers and rapists classified into organised and disorganised

Organised

Planned crime in advance

Victim targeted and offender may have 'type'

High degree of control and precision

Intelligent, skilled and professional, socially and sexually competant

Disorganised

Little evidence of planning

Spontaneous spur of the moment, impulsive, little control

Lower than average IQ, unskilled or unemployed, sexual dysfunction, live alone

36

Number of serial killers interviews to make the top down approach

The Bottom-Up Approach

Generates picture of offender through systematic analysis of evidence (data driven)

Investigative Psychology

Apply statistical procedures alongside psychological theory to analysis of crime scene evidence

Geographical Profiling

Location of linked crimes to make inference about likely home or operational base of offender (crime mapping)

Marauder

Someone who commits crime close to where they live

Commuter

Someone travels to commit crime

Rachel Nickell

British case study where profiling did but work

Arthur Shawcross

American serial killer who returned to the scene of the crime

Adrian Babb

American rapist who abused elderly ladies in tower blocks

John Duffy

British case study where profiling worked. He is known as the railway rapist

Lombroso

suggested criminials were genetic throwbacks, subspecies who were biologically different

Atavistic

Physiological markers of criminals.

Narrow, sloping brow and strong prominant jaw, high cheekbones and facial asymmetry, dark skin and extra toes/fingers/nipples

Murderers = bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears

Sexual deviants = glinting eyes, swollen and fleshy lips and projecting ears

Gall

Developed phrenology

MAOA

a gene that appears to play an important role in preventing antisocial behavior in humans

Diathesis-Stress Model

If genetics play a role it is likely also effected by environment, criminal behaviour may come about through both genetic predisposition and biological/psychological trigger

Neural

May be brain differences, evidence found association with reduced emotional responses, lack of empathy, characterises many convicted criminals

prefrontal cortex (PFC)

Raine using brain-imaging to show link between reduced activity in prefrontal cortex (part that regulates emotional behaviour) and criminal behaviour.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. Less active in criminals as found by Raine

Raine

Conducted research into the brains of serial killers using PET scans

Eysenck

proposed behaviour represented along 2 dimensions: 1. introversion/extraversion (E) and neuroticism/stability (N), form variety of personality characteristics/traits, later added psychoticism (P)

Criminal personality

Neurotic-extravert

Also score highly on psychoticism (cold, unemotional)

Level of Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg proposed people's decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral development

Kohlberg's

Developed levels of moral reasoning

Heinz Dilemma

Used to measure kohlbergs levels of moral reasoning

Cognitive Distortions

Errors or biases in information processing system characterised by faulty thinking, criminals interpret other people's behaviour and justify their own actions

Hostile Attribution Bias

Misinterpretting actions of others, misread non-aggressive cues triggering violent disproportionate response

Minimalisation

Attempt to deny or downplay seriousness of an offence, especially common with sexual offenders

Differential Association Theory

Proposes individuals learn values, attitudes etc. for criminal behaviour through interaction with different people

Sutherland

developed differential association theory

Pro-Criminal Attitudes

Exposed to values of groups towards crime. If these outweighs anti criminal attitudes = offending

Differential association theory proposes possibility to mathematically predict if frequency, intensity and duration of exposure is known

Superego

part of the personality that acts as a moral center

Weak Superego

Same-sex parent absent during phallic stage, child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego as no opportunity for identification

Deviant Superego

Internalised superego which is immoral or has deviant values

Over-Harsh Superego

Individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety, unconsciously drives individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy superego's need for punishment

Maternal Deprivation Theory

44 thieves study, affectionless psychopathy 12/14 with prolonged separation

Deterrence

Unpleasant prison experience designed to put off individuals offending

Works on 2 levels: general (broad message to members of society crime isn't tolerated) and individual (recidivism, punishment)

Incapacitation

Offender taken out of society for protection of public

Depends upon severity of offence and nature of offender

Retribution

Revenge for crime by making offender suffer

Level of suffering proportional to seriousness of crime

Rehabilitation

Reform offender, rejoin society, prison should provide opportunities to develop

recidivism

Refers to reoffending, 57% of UK offenders will reoffend within a year of release

Token Economy

Based on operant conditioning, reinforce desirable behaviour with token that can be exchanged for reward

Cognitive Behaviour Treatment

Novaco suggests cognitive factors trigger emotional arousal, precedes aggressive acts, becoming angry is reinforced by individuals feeling of control (behaviourism

Anger Management

1. Cognitive preparation

2. Skill acquisition

3. Application practise

Cognitive Preparation

Requires offender to reflect on past experience and consider typical patterns of anger, learns to identify triggers and if irrational this is made clear

Skill Acquisition

Offenders introduced to range of techniques and skills to help deal with anger-provoking situation more rationally, techniques cognitive, behavioural or physiological

Application Practise

Given opportunity to practise skills within carefully monitored environment, role play between offender and therapist of past triggering situation, successful > positive reinforcement

Restorative Justice

Managed collaboration between offender and victim based on healing and empowerment

Supervised meeting organised between both with experienced mediator

Victim shows how it affected them and offender sees consequences of their actions