Social, Cognitive, and Physical Development

Continuity

the view that development is a gradual, continuous process, with skills and behaviors smoothly over time

Stages

the view that development occurs through distinct, predictable phases, with qualitative changes at each stage

Chronological order

the arrangement of developmental stages or events according to a person’s age, beginning at conception or birth and progressing through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age

Thematic issues/stages

the major debates and stage-based theories psychologists use to explain patterns of growth and change across the lifespan

Stability and change

the concept that examines which traits, behaviors, and characteristics remain consistent over time (stability) and which ones develop or transform as individuals grow (change)

Nature vs nurture

the longstanding debate in psychology over the relative influence of genetic inheritance (nature) versus environmental factors and experiences (nurture) on human development, behavior, and psychological traits

Continuous

development is gradual, cumulative process with no distinct stages; abilities and traits change smoothly over time (like height or vocabulary growth)

Discontinuous stages

development occurs in distinct, qualitative stages, with clear shifts in thinking or behavior between stages

Cross-sectional studies

research method in developmental psychology where people of different ages are studied at the same point in time to compare how age relates to a certain behavior or ability

Longitudinal studies

a research method that follows the same individuals over a long period of time to observe how their behavior, abilities, or traits changes with age

Teratogens

any agent that can disturb the development of an embryo or fetus, causing birth defects, structural abnormalities, or functional impairments

Maternal illness

any health condition (physical or mental) the mother experiences during pregnancy that can negatively affect fetal development, acting as a prenatal risk factor, alongside teratogens and stress

Genetic mutations

a permanent change in the DNA sequences, altering the instructions of cells, which can affect gene function leading to variations in traits, disorders, or new characteristics

Hormonal factors

how chemical messengers (hormones) from endocrine glands, traveling through the bloodstream, influence behavior, emotions, growth, and physiological processes

Environmental factors

external influences from surroundings, experiences, and interactions that shape an individual’s development

Fine motor skills

use small muscles for precise tasks (writing, grasping, buttoning)

Gross motor skills

involve large muscle groups for big movements (walking, running, jumping)

Rooting reflex

an innate, automatic response where newborns turn their head and open their mouth to help them find a breast for feeding

Moro reflex

a primitive, involuntary newborn response to sudden stimuli (like falling or loud noise) causing a baby to fling arms out, then bring them back in with a cry

Babinski reflex/Plantar reflex

a normal infant reflex where stroking the sole of the foot causes the big toe to move upward (extend) and other toes to fan out

Visual cliff

experiment used to study depth perception in infants and animals. Using a glass covered table with a perceived drop off to see if they avoid the “cliff” to indicate their depth perception

Critical or sensitive periods

strict windows where specific experiences are essential for normal development such as the optimal time to learn a language the best

Imprinting

a rapid, instinctual learning process in young animals where they form a strong, lasting attachment to the first moving object or caregiver they encounter during a critical, early developmental period, influencing their social behavior and identification for life

Habituation

a fundamental type of learning where an organism’s response to a stimulus decreases or stops after repeated exposure

Maturation

the biological growth process, largely genetic, that enables orderly changes in behavior and development, relatively independent of experiences

Pruning process

“use it or lose it”- shuts down unused links and strengthens others (brain has a lot of plasticity)

Infantile amnesia

can’t remember much before 4 years old but can remember 4-5 yrs old and on

Adolescence

the transitional phase from childhood to adulthood, starting at puberty and marked by rapid physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development, where individuals form their identity, navigate relationships, and move towards independence

Puberty

the biological process of sexual maturation where a person becomes capable or reproduction

Adolescent growth spurt

a rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty, triggered by hormonal changes (especially growth hormone and sex hormones), marking the body’s transition from childhood to physical maturity

Primary sex characteristics

the biological structures necessary for reproduction, such as the ovaries and testes

Secondary sex characteristics

physical traits that distinguish males from females but are not directly involved in reproduction

Spermarche

the first occurrence of ejaculation in boys; it is a marker of male puberty and sexual maturation

Menarche

the first menstrual period in a female, signaling the onset of puberty and reproductive maturity

Adulthood

the stage of life after adolescence characterized by physical maturity, psychological stability, and the assumption of social responsibilities

Menopause

the biological process where a woman’s menstrual cycles permanently stop, typically occurring around age 50. Decline in estrogen and other reproductive hormones

Decline of mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and visual and auditory sensory acuity

As people age, there is often a decline in physical abilities such as mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and in sensory acuity, including both vision and hearing

Cognition

the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and understand

Schema*

a mental framework or concept that organizes and interprets information about the world; helping people understand experiences, guide behavior, and predict outcomes

Assimilation

the process of incorporating new information into existing schemas (mental frameworks) without changing the structure of those schemas

Accommodation

the process by which existing cognitive schemas are modified or new schemas are created in order to fit new information or experiences

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist who studied cognitive development in children, proposing that children move through 4 distinct stages of thinking

Sensorimotor

the first stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, during which infants learn about the world primarily through their senses and motor activities

Object permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched

Preoperational

(ages 2-7) children begin to use symbols, words, and images to represent objects and ideas

Pretend play

a type of play in which children use their imagination to act out roles, scenarios, or situations that are not actually happening

Conservation

the understanding that certain properties of objects- such as volume, number, or mass- remain the same even when their appearance changes

Reversibility

the ability of a child to understand that objects or actions can be changed and then returned to their original state

Animism

the tendency of young children, usually in the preoperational stage (2-7), to believe that inanimate objects have feelings, thoughts, or intentions

Egocentrism

the tendency of young children to view the world only from their own perspective, struggling to understand that others may have thoughts, feelings, or viewpoints different from their own

Theory of mind

the ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and perspectives that may differ from one’s own

Concrete operational

(ages 7-11) Children begin to think logically about concrete events, understand concepts like conservation, reversibility, and cause-effect

Formal operational

the stage of cognitive development (age 12) where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically

Lev Vygotsky

Russian psychologist who emphasized the social and cultural influences on cognitive development. Believed children learn through interaction with more knowledgeable others

Zone of proximal development

the range of tasks that a learner can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable person, but cannot yet perform independently

Scaffolding

a teaching method in which a more knowledgeable person provides temporary support to help a child learn a new skill or concept, support is gradually removed, allowing the child to perform independently

Crystallized intelligence*

the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills that a person learned over time; it tends to increase with age and experience

Fluid intelligence*

the ability to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge

Dementia

syndrome of progressive, progressive, significant cognitive decline severe enough to interfere with daily life, resulting from brain cell damage, not normal aging

Ecological systems theory

explains development as influenced by nested, interacting environmental systems, from immediate settings like family/school, to broader cultural contexts, all layered over time

Microsystem (groups that have direct contact with the individual)

the immediate environment where an individual has direct, face to face interaction, such as family, school, peers, and neighborhood

Mesosystem (the relationships between groups in the microsystem)

the layer of interconnected relationships between different microsystems (immediate environments like home, school) that influences a person’s development, showing how these direct settings interact and affect each other

Exosystem (indirect factors in an individual’s life)

consists of social settings and environments that the individual does not directly experience or participate in, but that still indirectly influence their development

Macrosystem(cultural events that affect the individuals and others around them)

refers to the broader cultural values, beliefs, customs, laws, and social events that shape an individual’s development such as cultural norms, political systems, and economic conditions

Chronosystem (the individual’s current stage of life)

the dimension of time in a person’s life, including transitions, major events, and how these changes influence development over time (EX: puberty, divorce, moving)

Parenting styles

the style in which parents/ guardians choose to raise their children

Authoritarian

parents are strict, controlling, expect obedience with little warmth or explanation

Permissive

parents are warm and accepting but provide few rules or limits

Neglectful

parents show low warmth and low control, often being disengaged

Authoritative

parents are warm, responsive, and set clear rules while encouraging independence but maintaining limits

Cultural differences

variations in values, beliefs, norms, and practices across cultures that shape how people develop emotions, relationships, identity, and social behavior

Attachment

strong emotional bond that forms between an infant and primary caregiver, providing a sense of security and comfort, especially when stressed

Strange situation

Lab by Mary Ainsworth that observes how children respond to separation and reunions with a caregiver and presence of a stranger, revealing attachment styles

Secure attachment

a strong, healthy emotional bond between an infant and caregiver in which the child feels safe and supported

Insecure attachment

a pattern of attachment in which infants don’t feel consistently safe or confident that a caregiver will meet their needs, often due to inconsistent, unresponsive, or intrusive caregiving

Avoidant

attachment in which infants show little distress when a caregiver leaves and avoid or ignore the caregiver when they return, often because the caregiver has been consistently unresponsive or rejecting

Anxious

an attachment in which individuals are often preoccupied with their relationships and fear that others will not reciprocate their affection typically seeking high levels of closeness or reassurance

Disorganized

attachment in which the child shows inconsistent, contradictory, or confused behaviors toward a caregiver, often because the caregiver is a source of both comfort and fear

Temperament

a person’s characteristic pattern of emotional reactivity and intensity that is present from early life and influences how they respond to the environment

Separation anxiety

the distress or fear that infants or young children experience when they are separated from their primary caregiver or attachment figure

Harry Harlow

psychologist known for his experiments with monkeys demonstrating that infant attachment is driven by need for comfort and emotional security, not just food

Peer relationships

interactions and connections with individuals of similar age or social status that influence social skills, emotional development, identity formation and behavior

Parallel play

a type of play seen in toddlers where children play side by side with similar toys but do not directly interact with each other

Pretend play*

a type of play in which children use their imagination to create scenarios, roles, or objects that are not real, often imitating real-life situations

Imaginary audience

a cognitive distortion in adolescence where individuals believe that others are constantly watching, evaluating, or judging them, as if they are “on stage”

Personal fable

a belief, common in adolescence, that one’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique and special, and that no one else can understand them

Social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events, such as marriage, parenthood, career milestones, and retirement

Emerging adulthood

a developmental period roughly ages 18 to 25 when individuals transition from adolescence to full adulthood, characterized by exploration of identity, increased independence, and instability in work, relationships, and living situations

Family relationships

the emotional bonds, interactions, and patterns of behaviors between family members, which play a critical role in a person’s social, emotional and psychological development

Impact of attachment styles

shapes emotional regulation, influences social relationships, can affect self esteem and coping strategies

Death deferral theory

the idea that people can unconsciously “hold on” and delay dying until after significant life events suggesting that emotional and social factors can influence the timing of death

Psychosocial theory

a developmental framework proposing that people progress through 8 stages of life, each characterized by a psychological conflict involving social and emotional factors

Trust and mistrust

the stage in which an infant learns whether or not they can rely on their caregivers to meet their basic needs

Autonomy and shame and doubt

at this stage toddlers develop a sense of independence and personal control over physical skills and a sense of autonomy

Initiative and guilt

the stage in early childhood where children begin to take initiative by asserting control and power over their environment through planning, play, and social interactions

Industry and inferiority

the stage where children learn to feel competent and productive by mastering skills, completing tasks, and receiving recognition

Identity and role confusion

stage where trends explore who they are as individuals including their values, beliefs, and goals

Intimacy and isolation

stages focuses on young adulthood by focusing on forming close, meaningful relationships with others versus feeling alone or socially isolated

Generativity and stagnation

the stage involving adults’ focus on contributing to society and helping the next generation versus feeling unproductive, self-absorbed, or stuck

Integrity and despair

the stage involves reflecting on one’s life and evaluating whether it was meaningful and well-lived