What is Intelligence?

• Intelligence: a multifaceted capacity that includes the abilities to

  • acquire and apply knowledge

  • reason logically, plan effectively, and infer perceptively

  • grasp and visualize concepts

  • find the right words and thoughts with facility

  • cope with and adjust to novel situations

• However, intelligence is not limited to this description and this list should be considered a point for reflection on one’s own personal definition

• Intelligence as Defined by the Lay Public

  • Sternberg and associates sought to shed light on the lay public’s definition of intelligence, as well as its definition by psychologists

  • differences between laypeople’s definitions and that of experts included motivation (with experts tending to emphasize motivation) and the interpersonal aspects of intelligence (as emphasized in the lay public’s definition)

  • Siegler and Richards (1980) asked developmental psychology students to list behaviors associated with intelligence in infancy, childhood, and adulthood

    • different conceptions of intelligence as a result of development were noted

  • Yusen and Kane (1980) found that notions of intelligence emerge as early as first grade

    • Younger children tended to emphasize interpersonal skills while older children emphasized academic skills

• Intelligence as Defined by the Experts

  • Sir Francis Galton was the first person to publish on the heritability of intelligence

  • Galton (1883) believed that the most intelligent persons were equipped with the best sensory abilities

    • by such logic, test of visual acuity or hearing ability are measurements of intelligence

  • Galton developed many sensorimotor and perception-related tests by which he attempted to measure his definition of intelligence

  • Alfred Binet did not define intelligence explicitly but instead described various components of intelligence, including reasoning, judgment, memory, and abstraction

  • Binet and a colleague criticized Galton’s approach to intellectual assessment and instead called for more complex measurements of intellectual ability

  • While Galton argued that intelligence consisted of distinct processes that could be assessed only by individual tests, Binet viewed intelligence as inseparable abilities that required complex measurements to determine

• David Wechsler (1958) conceptualized intelligence as “the aggregate … capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. It is composed of elements abilities which … are qualitatively differentiable

  • Wechsler was of the opinion that the best way to measure intelligence was by measuring several “qualitatively differentiable” abilities, which were verbal - or performance-based in nature

  • The Wechsler-Bellevue (W-B) Scale provided the calculation of a verbal IQ and a performance IQ

• Jean Piaget focused his research on the development of cognitive abilities in children

  • Piaget defined intelligence as an evolving biological adaptation to the outside world; a consequence of interaction with the environment, psychological structures become reorganized

  • According to Piaget, as individual stages are progressed through, the child has experiences within the environment that requires some form of cognitive organizations in a schema

  • Schema: a mental structure that, when applied to the world, leads to knowing or understanding

  • learning was hypothesized to occur through 2 operations

    • Assimilation: the active organization of new information into an existing schema

    • Accomodation: the adjustment of an existing schema to new information

  • According to Piaget, there are 4 periods of cognitive development, each representing a more complex form of cognitive reorganization

    • these stages range from the sensorimotor period in infancy to the formal operations period in adolescence

• Interactionism: the mechanism by which heredity and environment are presumed to interact and influence the development of intelligence

• Factor-Analysis Theories of Intelligence: focus squarely on identifying the ability or groups of abilities deemed to constitute intelligence

  • Factor Analysis: a group of statistical techniques designed to determine the existence of underlying relationships between sets of variables

  • Spearman (1927) postulated the existence of a general intellectual ability factor (g) and specific factors of intelligence

    • g was assumed to afford the best prediction of overall intelligence, best measured through abstract-reasoning problems

  • Many multiple-factor models of intelligence have been proposed

    • Some (Guilford, Thurstone) have sought to explain mental activities by deemphasizing or eliminating any reference to g

    • Gardner developed a theory of 7 intelligences: logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, liguistic, musical, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

  • Horn and Cattell developed a theory of intelligence postulating the existence of 2 major types of cognitive abilities

    • Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): includes acquired skills and knowledge that are dependent on exposure to a particular culture as well as on formal and informal education

    • Fluid Intelligence (Gf): nonverbal, relatively culture-free, and independent of specific instruction

  • The CHC model integrates the Cattell-Horn and Carroll models, featuring 10 “broad-stratum” abilities and over 70 “narrow-stratum” abilities

    • each broad-stratum ability subsumes 2 or more narrow-stratum abilities

• Information-Processing Theories: focus on identifying the specific mental processes that constitute intelligence

  • Simultaneous (Parallel) Processing: the integration of information occurs all at once

  • Successive (Sequential) Processing: information is individually processed in a logical sequence

Measuring Intelligence

• measuring intelligence entails sampling an examinee’s performance on different types of tests and tasks as a function of developmental level

• In infancy, intellectual assessment consists of measuring sensorimotor development

• In older, children, intellectual assessment focuses on verbal and performance abilities

• Adult intelligence scales should tap abilities such as general information retention, quantitative reasoning, expressive language, and social judgment

  • Intelligence tests are rarely administered to adults for purposes of educational placement, but rather to ascertain clinically relevant information or learning potential

• Mental Age: an index that refers to the chronological age equivalent of one’s performance on a test or subtest

  • many intelligence tests were scores and interpreted with reference to mental age

Intelligence: Some Issues

• Nature vs Nurture

  • Today most behavioral scientists believe that measured intellectual ability represents an interaction between innate ability and environmental influences

    • Historically, however, this interactionist perspective was not popular.

    • Preformationism: a theory that holds that all living organisms are preformed at birth; all of an organism’s structures, including intelligences, are performed at birth and cannot be improved upon

    • Predeterminism: the doctrine that holds that one’s abilities are predetermined by genetic inheritance and that no amount of learning or other intervention can enhance what has been genetically encoded to unfold

    • Gesell (1929) was a major proponent predeterminism and with twin studies, concluded that “training does not transcend maturation”

      • Gesell believed that neural mechanisms, rather than experience, were most important in the development of intelligence

      • He argued that behavioral patterns are determined by “innate processes of growth” that he likened to maturation

    • Proponents for the “nurture” side of the debate emphasize the importance of factors such as prenatal and postnatal environment, socioeconomic status, educational opportunities, and parental modeling

    • Interactionist models suggest that people inherent a certain intellectual potential, which then depends on the type of environment in which it is nurtured

• Other Issues

  • Flynn Effect: the progressive rise in intelligence test scores that is expected to occur on a normed intelligence test from the date when the test was first normed

  • Culture

    • Culture provides specific models for thinking, acting, and feeling, enabling people to survive both physically and socially and to master the world around them

    • values may differ radically between cultural groups, and thus individuals from these varying cultures may have radically differing views on what constitutes intelligence

    • items on an intelligence test tend to reflect the culture of the society where the test is employed and thus many theorists have expressed a desire to develop a culture-free intelligence test

    • Culture-free intelligence tests are difficult if not impossible, and thus “culture-fair” intelligence tests began to be developed

    • Culture Loading: the extent to which a test incorporates the vocabulary, concepts, traditions, knowledge, and feelings associated with a particular culture

Test of Intelligence

The Standard-Binet Intelligence Scales

• the first published intelligence test with clear instructions on use

• Ratio IQ: the ratio of the testtaker’s mental age divided by his or her chronological age, multiplied by 100 to eliminate decimals

  ratio IQ = (mental age/chronological age)*100

• With the third edition of the Stanford-Binet, the deviation IQ was replaced with the ratio IQ

  • Deviation IQ: a comparison of the performance of the individual with the performance of others in the same age in the standardization sample

• With the fourth edition, a point scale was implemented which organized subtests by category of item rather than the age at which most testtakers should be able to respond correctly

• model for the 4th and 5th edition

  • The 5th edition was designed for administration to ages 2 to 85

  • The test yields a composite of scores, including a Full Scale IQ, Abbreviated Battery Score, Verbal IQ Score, and Nonverbal IQ score

• Fifth Edition

  • Fluid Reasoning (FR)

    • novel problem solving; understanding of relationships that are not culturally bound

      • Nonverbal: object series or matrices

      • Verbal: analogies

  • Knowledge (KN)

    • skills and knowledge acquired by formal and informal education

      • Nonverbal: picture absurdities

      • Verbal: vocabulary

  • Quantitative Reasoning (QR)

    • knowledge of mathematical thinking including no concepts, estimation, problem solving, and measurement

      • Nonverbal: nonverbal QR

      • Verbal: verbal QR

  • Visual-Spatial Processing (VS)

    • ability to see patterns and relationships and spatial orientation as well as the gestalt among diverse visual stimuli

      • Nonverbal: form board

      • Verbal: position and direction

  • Working Memory (WM)

    • cognitive process of temporarily storing and then transforming or sorting information in memory

      • Nonverbal: delayed response

      • Verbal: memory for sentences

  • can be converted into nominal categories designated by cutoff boundaries for quick reference

• The Wechsler Tests

  • a series of individually-administered intelligence tests to assess the intellectual abilities of people from preschool through adulthood

  • Until recently, all Wechsler scales yielded several possible composite scores, including a full scale IQ (a measure of general intelligence), a verbal IQ, and a performance IQ

  • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 4th Ed. (WAIS-IV)

    • consists of subtests that are designated as either “core” or “supplemental”

      • Core Subtest: a subtest administered to obtain a composite score

      • Supplemental Subtest: a subtest administered to provide additional clinical information or extend the number of abilities or processes sampled

    • contains 10 core subjects (Block Design, Similarities, Digit Span, Matrix Reasoning, Vocabulary, Arithmetic, Symbol Search, Visual Puzzles, Information, and Coding) and 5 Supplemental Subtests (Letter-Number Sequencing, Figure Weights, Comprehension, Cancellation, and Picture Completion)

• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Ed. (WISC-IV)

  • yields a measure of general intellectual functioning (a full scale IQ) as well as 4 index scores: a Verbal Comprehension Index, a Perceptual Reasoning Index, a Working Memory Index, and a Processing Speed Index

  • it is also possible to derive up to 7 process scores

    • Process Score: an index designed to help understand the way the test taker processes various kinds of information

  • for ages 6 through 16 years, 11 months

• Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, 3rd Ed. (WPPSI-III)

  • was developed to assess children and racial minorities

  • includes several subtests, including Matrix Reasoning, Symbol Search, Word Reasoning, and Picture Concepts

  • 4-6 years of age