A+P I Lec Exam (Ch 1-3)

anatomy

study of structure

oldest medical science

internal/external structures + physical relationships

physiology

study of function

medical terminology

language of A+P

derived from Latin/Greek

eponyms

names given to structures by ppl

mostly commemorative → we’re trying to transition away from that and use medically accurate terms

ex. fallopian tubes → uterine tubes

Gross Anatomy

• surface anatomy

• regional anatomy

• systemic anatomy

• clinical anatomy

• developmental biology

• embryology

clinical anatomy (gross anatomy)

• pathological anatomy

• radiographic anatomy

• surgical anatomy

microscopic anatomy

• cell biology

• histology

physiology subspecialties

• cell physiology

• neurophysiology

• immunology

• pathophysiology

sign

OBJECTIVE disease indication

ex. blood pressure, fever

symptom

SUBJECTIVE disease indication

ex. tiredness, pain

levels of organization

• chemical

• cellular

• tissue

• organ

• organ system

• organism

human body systems

• integumentary

• skeletal

• muscular

• nervous

• endocrine

• cardiovascular

• lymphatic

• respiratory

• digestive

• urinary

• reproductive

MURDERS LINK

most important life processes

• metabolism

• responsiveness

• movement

• growth

• differentiation

• reproduction

homeostasis

maintaining stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment

homeostatic regulation

adjusting physiological systems to maintain stable internal body system

nervous + endocrine systems work together

3 parts:

-receptor

-control center

-effector

variables

factors that can change homeostasis

ex. blood sugar, body temp, blood volume

receptor (homeostatic regulation)

send nerve impulses/chemical signals to control center

control center (homeostatic regulation)

receives input and sends those impulses/signals to effectors

effector (homeostatic regulation)

receives input to make changes happen and/or alter the controlled condition

negative feedback

response reduces/shuts off og stimulus

variable changes in opp direction of initial change

ex. blood pressure, body temp, blood sugar

positive feedback

response enhances/exaggerates the og stimulus

usually controls rare events that don’t need continuous adjustment

ex. uterine contractions during labor or platelet plug formation and clotting

causes of homeostatic imbalances

• environment

• own behavior

• genetic makeup

• the air you breathe

• the food you eat

• the thoughts you think

anatomical position

person stands erect

facing observer

hands at side

palms forward

feet together

supine

lying down

face up

prone

lying down

face down

caudal/inferior (down/below)

cranial/cephalic/superior (up/above)

posterior/dorsal (back)

anterior/ventral (front)

lateral (out/away from the body)

medial (in/towards the body)

proximal (up/close to the body)

distal (down/away from the body)

superficial (on the surface of the body)

deep (deep in the body)

cranial cavity

formed by cranial bones and has brain

vertebral cavity

formed by vertabrae and has spinal cord and spinal nerves

thoracic cavity

chest cavity

-pleural cavity

-pericardial cavity

-mediastinum

pleural cavity (thoracic cavity)

space bw layers of pleura that surround a lung

right and left each have a lung

pleural membranes

pericardial cavity (thoracic cavity)

space bw layers of pericardium that surrounds the heart

pericardial membranes

mediastinum (thoracic cavity)

central part of thoracic cavity bw lungs

connective tissue surrounds heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, blood vessels

abdominopelvic cavity

has 4 quadrants and 9 regions

-abdominal cavity

-pelvic cavity

abdominal cavity (abdominopelvic cavity)

from the diaphragm → top of pelvis

has stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, SI, LI, and peritoneum surrounds organs

peritoneal cavity - space lined by peritoneal membranes

pelvic cavity (abdominopelvic cavity)

area within the pelvis

has urinary bladder, distal part of LI, and internal reproductive organs

serous membranes

cover viscera within thoracic + abdominal cavities

lines the walls of thorax + abdomen

2 layers: parietal + visceral

parietal (serous membrane)

covers internal surface of body wall/cavity

visceral (serous membrane)

covers organs

viscera

organs are partially or completely enclosed by cavities

there is fluid in the space bw these 2 membranes

frontal/coronal plane

divides into anterior/ventral and posterior/dorsal

sagittal plane

divides into left and right

SIDE view

midsagittal plane

median

goes directly through the middle of the body like a hot dog

parasagittal plane

goes directly down the body but not in the exact middle

transverse plane

divides into superior/cranial and inferior/caudal

aka horizontal

oblique plane

cuts into vertical plane at any angle other than 90 degrees

matter

anything that occupies space and has mass

solid-definite shape and volume

liquid-definite volume, takes the shape of the container

gas-no definite shape nor volume

elements

fundamental units of matter

96% of body is made of 4 elements

O, C, H, N

atoms

fundamental units of elements

neutron^0

proton^+

electron^-

how can we identify an element?

atomic number

mass number

atomic mass

atomic # (element)

no. of protons in an atom

mass # (element)

no. of p^+ and n^0 in an atom

ISOTOPE

atomic mass (element)

avg mass of all stable atoms in an element

isotope

same # of protons^+ and electrons^-

dif # of neutrons^0 → dif atomic masses

radioisotope

heavy isotope of certain atoms

unstable and decay

decomposes to more stable isotope by releasing E

ion

atom that has lost or gained e- to become stable

cation

anion

cation (ion)

atom loses e- → pos charged ion

ex. Na^+

anion (ion)

atom gains e- → neg charged ion

ex. Cl-

molecule

2+ atoms sharing e-

ex of a chemical reaction:

H (atom) + H (atom) → H2 (molecule)

“reactants” “product”

compound

has 2+ atoms of DIFFERENT elements

ex of a chemical reaction:

4H + C → CH4 (methane)

free radical

atom(s) w unpaired e- in outermost shell

unstable atoms that can damage cells, causing illness and aging

chemical bond

happens when atoms are held together by forces of attraction

they have E + can move

have stored chem energy that may be needed/released

ionic bond (chemical bond)

form when e- are TRANSFERRED from 1 atom to another → stability

attraction bw cation/anion

covalent bond (chemical bond)

form when e- are SHARED bw atoms → stability

nonpolar

polar

nonpolar (covalent bond)

e- are shared EQUALLY

electrically neutral

ex. carbon dioxide

polar (covalent bond)

e- are not shared equally

molecule has pos + neg poles

ex. water

hydrogen bond (chemical bond)

attraction of opp charged polar mols

extremely weak

H+ atom is attracted to neg part of polar mol (ex. N or O)

responsible for surface tension of water

help form intramolecular bonds (ex. protein structure)

chemical reaction

when new bonds are formed or old bonds are broken

reactant-starting substance

product-ending substance

-synthesis

-decomposition

-exchange

-reversible

-oxidation/reduction

activation energy

energy required for chem reaction to occur

catalyst

chem comps that speed up reaction by lowering the amt of activation E required

biochemistry

study of chem comp and reactions of living matter

inorganic compounds

water, salts, acids, bases

DON’T have carbon

(except CO2, CO)

organic compounds

carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

contain carbon, usually large, also have covalent bonds

water

really good solvent

has polar covalent bonds + bent shape, so each water mol can interact w many other mols

good in chem reactions

is added to break bonds in hydrolysis and is removed to make bonds in dehydration

high heat capacity + heat of vaporization

good lubricant + reduces friction

hydrophilic

water soluble

hydrophobic

water insoluble

pH

concentration of H+ solution

acidic < 7

basic > 7

neutral = 7

buffer system

maintain homeostasis by converting strong acids/bases → weak acids/bases to regulate pH

carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

HCO3- (carbonic acid)

removes excess H+ in acids and adds more H+ in bases as needed

why is carbon useful?

-can combine in variety of shapes

-don’t dissolve easily in water

-good source of E

-has H and O

-larger than inorganic mols

carb

has C, H, O

H and O are in 2:1 ratio

provide E needed for life

lipid

has C, H, O but no ratio for H and O

sometimes has P

insoluble in water (hydrophobic)

phospholipid

modified triglycerides

glycerol + 2 fatty acids + Phosphate group

head is polar + hydrophilic

tail is nonpolar + hydrophobic

help cell membrane structure

steroid

has 4 ring structures

ex. cholesterol

made by liver and found in animal products

helps synthesize Vit D, steroids, bile salts

helps cell plasma membrane structure

protein

20-30% of cell mass

gives structure to body, regulates processes, provides protection, helps muscles move, transports substances, enzymes

has 4 structural levels

1+ polypeptides

peptide bond formation

amino acids are joined by peptide bonds (covalent) that connect amine group to carboxyl group

dipeptide

2 amino acids

polypeptide

many amino acids

primary structure (protein)

sequence of amino acids in polypeptide

secondary structure (protein)

alpha helixes, beta pleated sheets

tertiary structure (protein)

overall folding pattern → 3D shape

quaternary structure (protein)

2+ polypeptide chains relative to one another

enzyme

proteins that act as bio catalysts

high specific, efficient, subject to cellular controls

end in -ase

ex. hydrolase

nucleic acid

DNA makes genetic code in nucleus of cells

regulates most of cell’s activities

RNA guides protein formation

made of nucleotides:

nitrogen base, pentose sugar, phosphate group

ATP

primary E-storing mol in body

cells need this immediately

can be transferred to other comps that can use E in phosphate bond to do work

parts of a cell

cell membrane

cytoplasm

nucleus

cytoplasm (parts of a cell)

cytosol - gel like fluid component

organelles - structures that perform specific cell functions

all of these materials bw cell membrane and nucleus

inclusions - insoluble molecules