Salmon Final Exam

List two common sources of contaminants of emerging concern. Where are they coming from?

- Plasticizers from industrial activity
- WWTP effluents

In what specific way do some contaminants of emerging concern impact aquatic organisms?

Contaminants cause abnormalities in the endocrine and reproductive organs of marine wildlife

What is "shoreline armoring" and how does it impact salmon?

"Shoreline armoring" involves installing a wall/rickrack. It protects the shore from erosion from waves and currents. There is lower vertebrate diversity and density in armored shore areas, so less food for salmon.

The boardwalk overhanging Seattle's new seawall includes transparent panels. How does this benefit salmon?

Transparent panels let light down to allow juvenile salmon to go where there are less predators. More light also leads to more vegetation for habitat and food.

What is an upwelling and how does it typically impact salmon?

An upwelling occurs when wind blows the surface of the ocean, which creates currents and circulates the water. Surface water goes deeper and deeper water rises. Nutrients rise, which feeds plankton, which feeds salmon. Upwellings are good for productivity and salmon survival.

Briefly describe the ocean conditions during El Niño events. Is salmon survival generally higher or lower during these events?

El Nino results in warmer sea water. There are also less upwellings, so less nutrients that are not as rich in calories. This leads to lower salmon survival.

Briefly describe Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). Explain whether PNW salmon survival is higher during "warm phase" or "cool phase" conditions.

Warm phases are long periods where sea surface temperatures are warmer than normal. There is lower salmon survival in warm phases. Cool phases are better for salmon survival.

Is El Niño more similar to "warm-phase" or "cool-phase" PDO?

El Nino is more similar to warm phases.

Why does salmon survival generally decrease when sea surface temperatures are warmer?

Warm water increases metabolism of prey items, so there are less calories per bug. This makes salmon have to use more energy to gain calories. Warm water also decreases upwellings, so there is less food for salmon (less productive waters).

What do the arrows in a food web represent?

Arrows represent the flow of nutrients and energy from prey to predator.

Explain the process of biomagnification and how it relates to the food web.

Biomagnification occurs when pollutants in the water make it into tissues. These pollutants increase in concentration through the food web.

Define "carrying capacity" and explain how it relates to hatchery salmon.

Carrying capacity is the maximum number of a species that an area can support over time (Ex: number of salmon the Columbia River can feed or provide breeding habitat for over time). Hatchery salmon increase the competition in the Columbia River, which reduces resources for wild salmon and stocks.

List two non-native fish species that are targeted by recreational anglers. How do these species interact with salmon?

Smallmouth bass and walleye eat juvenile salmon

What are splash dams and how did they affect salmon habitat?

Splash dams are temporary dams that caused the water to back up behind them, allowing logs to collect. The dams would be blown up with dynamite to release the water and logs. This carried small gravel downstream, so salmon lost breeding habitat. Rushes of water reduced vegetation.

When was the first hydroelectric dam built on the Columbia River?

Rock Island Dam in 1933

How did FDR's "New Deal" impact dam construction in the Columbia River?

The New Deal was used to provide jobs during the depression. Dam construction is a slow process, so these jobs were reliable. Building the Columbia River dam was an investment into the development of the arid west and stimulated the economy.

Describe three ways that humans benefit from dams aside from hydroelectric energy production.

1. navigation/shipping (higher water levels means larger ships)
2. flood control (water can be released to accommodate snow melt and flooding)
3. irrigation (stored water means more water for farmers and their crops)

Describe two ways in which salmonids are harmed by the presence and operation of modern-day hydroelectric dams.

1. Turbines can injure or kill salmon
2. Dams increase predation of adult and juvenile salmon (adults have to swim through narrow fish ladders - ideal for sea lions. Northern pikeminnow eat juvenile salmon coming out of dams)

What is "spill" and how does it benefit juvenile salmon?

Spill is when dam operators (USACE) let water flow over the dam via spillways, not through turbines. Dam operators are required to "spill" during the spring to allow for safer juvenile migration away from turbines.

Describe the role that the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) plays in the Columbia River Basin.

BPA sells power generated by hydroelectric dams in the Columbia River and transmit the power to its customers.

Describe the role that the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) plays in the Columbia River Basin.

USACE operates dams on the Columbia River and barges juveniles salmon downstream to reduce dam-associated mortality (causes straying).

Explain how the Bonneville Power Administration mitigates the harm that hydropower operations impose on salmonids.

BPA funds habitat restoration projects and promotes higher stream flows in Columbia River tributaries.

What impact might irrigation have on water temperatures? Explain why temperature changes.

Irrigation causes water to be removed from water in summer, when its hot, so water temperatures rise. This can be lethal to salmon.

Explain how poor logging practices affect sediment quantity.

Logging close to streams can reduce recurring vegetation along streams, which causes erosion.

Explain how poor logging practices affect water temperatures.

Poor logging causes increased water temperature, as reduced riparian vegetation reduces shade.

What is storm water?

Storm water is water that runs off of man-made impervious surfaces.

Why is storm water an issue if it goes down a drain?

Storm water collects pollutants, which can be carried into storm drains, which can go into streams or the ocean. It is not treated.

Describe a "flashy" stream. What causes streams to be "flashy? How do flashy streams impact salmon?

Flashy streams are streams have faster stream flow due to the addition of storm water. They tend to rise after storms. Flashy streams are more common in urban areas. Flashy streams cause scouring, or the removal of spawning habitat.

Explain TMDLs in the context of salmon habitat.

TMDL = Total Maximum Daily Load, or the maximum amount of pollution a stream can withstand (can be measured in regards to salmon and other species).

Explain NPDES in the context of salmon habitat.

NPDES = national pollutant discharge elimination system. Allows entities to legally pollute waterways (with restrictions). It is regulated.

Explain how the Columbia Basin Water Transaction Program (CBWTP) benefits salmon. Include the term "water right" in your answer.

CBWTP works with landowners along tributaries to voluntarily give up water rights (amount of water you can legally remove). This retains more water in the river.

What agency provides most of the funding for the CBWTP? Why are they funding this program?

Most funding comes from Bonneville Power Administration. They are funding this program to mitigate dam-associated harm.

Define a "native invader"

A native invader is a native species that threaten other native species and/or ecosystem functions.

What human action enabled sea lions to achieve the status of a native invader?

In 1972, the killing of seas lions was restricted by the Marine Mammal Protection Act.

What criteria need to be met before the Oregon and Washington Departments of Fish and Wildlife can remove (lethal or send to zoos) sea lions?

The Endangered Salmon Predation Prevention Act needs to be signed.

Describe two arguments in favor of the CSL removal of sea lions.

1. Fish managers argue that changing dams will take too long to change sea lion populations, because certain fish populations are at a high risk of extinction now.
2. Sea lions populations are healthy and no longer require the same protections that were granted in 1972.

Describe two arguments against the CSL removal of sea lions.

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What are the most common farmed salmon?

Atlantic salmon

Compare farmed fish to hatchery fish.

- Farmed fish never see the wild, whereas hatchery fish are released and grow in the wild.
- Both are incubated as eggs.
- Farmed fish are used for food only, whereas hatchery fish have many fates.
- Farmed salmon are often Atlantic salmon, not necessarily true for hatchery salmon.

What are the pros of salmon farming?

- less pressure on wild fish
- year-round source of fresh fish
- just as nutritious as wild salmon
- good for economy
- more equitable access to salmon

What are the cons of salmon farming?

- lots of organic waste
- use of antibiotics (are released into the environment, can lead to antibiotic resistant bacteria and pests)
- may attract parasites and introduce diseases to wild fish
- increased pressure on forage fish (often overfished for fish oils and other purposes)
- farmed fish can escape
- some farms
are opting for genetically unique salmon (triploid steelhead)

What are some alternatives to salmon farming?

- moving to inland facilities (controlled water quality, less or no antibiotics, no pathogen transmission, no escapes, BUT initial cost is 3x that of net pens)
- fish pellets (rely on less forage fish)

What happens if we reduce the amount of energy going out?

Net accumulation of energy, which causes average global temperature to increase.

Why is Earth trapping more energy (heat)?

- greenhouse gasses (CO2, methane) create a blanket that traps heat
- greenhouse effect

How do scientists predict impacts of climate change?

- experiments
- observational studies
- computer models

Describe the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?

- members from 195 countries
- review contributions (synthesizes info, does not research)
- does not make policies

What changes have been observed for temperature?

Increase of 1.5°F since late 1800s

What changes have been observed for sea level?

increase of 8 inches since late 1800s

Is thermal stress expected to be worse in western or eastern washington?

Eastern washington

How will snow packs change over time due to climate change?

Snow packs will decrease, so less water flow.

How will summer flows be affected by climate change?

reduced summer flows (10% decrease by 2100, not considering glacial disappearance)

What are the predictions for Pacific Salmon in the future due to climate change?

- winter floods will cause egg mortality
- juvenile salmon will be displaced by high flows
- change in freshwater geographic range
- upstream migration timing will change
- change in spring high flow timing (and therefore outmigration timing)

What can we do to mitigate climate change?

- repair items when possible
- reuse when possible
- buying = voting
- 72 hour rule for purchases
- be conscious of food waste
- minimize beef consumption
- conscious water use
- share items when possible

Most non-native species in the PNW are what type of organism?

Plants

Name four different non-native fish that are found in the Columbia River Basin.

- smallmouth bass
- walleye
- channel catfish
- American shad

What is a "native invader" and what habitat modification allowed the northern pikeminnow to achieve this status?

- native invaders are native species whose population has increased significantly as a response to humans modifying habitat
- dams create reservoirs, which was more ideal for northern pikeminnow than a flowing river, so the population grew

What action is being taken to reduce the population size of northern pikeminnow?

angler reward program

How does Idaho justify stocking much more non-native fish than other states in the PNW?

Much of the state's waters are no longer accessible by migratory salmonids

To what geographic area are American Shad native? How were they transported to the west coast? Why were they brought here?

- native to east coast
- transported by trains (ie in milk containers)

Describe the change in fishing regulations that occurred at Lake Roosevelt in eastern WA. Do recreational fishing clubs think that this change will be effective? Why or why not?

- changed "bag limit" (the number of fish a person can harvest in one day from 8 to 16 walleye
- fishing groups were just going to promote catch and release fishery fish to push against regulation

How was "fish slime" used to infer the impact of certain non-native predators on native salmonids?

Salmon only responded to native northern pikeminnow slime, not bass slime. Salmon have not evolved to detect the bass slime.

What is a levee and why is it used?

Earthen mound built along a river to reduce the likelihood of flooding

What is a side channel and how does it benefit salmon?

- a side channel is a small channel that branches off from the main channel of a river, then reconnects to the main channel at some point
- side channels provide a slow water refuge, more food, and possible spawning habitat (if flow is fast) for salmon

Why did Sumner buy the highest elevation property first for their restoration project?

- land development is most likely to be allowed on high elevation property in the future
- lower elevation land is more likely to flood, so less development opportunity

Describe the construction of an engineered log jam (ELJ). What role do ELDs play in the project that Robert discussed?

ELJs are clusters of logs (some driven 40 ft into the ground) that serve to provide cover, attract bugs, and more

What is the City of Sumner planning to do with the water that is currently flowing from the Cascade Water Alliance tailrace? How will this change impact salmon?

- reroute the tailrace to flow to the south
- buy an additional cubic ft/second of flow (increases flows in the tailrace)
- tailrace will be surrounded by wetland which will keep it cooler in the summer months