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Chemical reactions
The making and breaking of covalent bonds that occur in cells.
Equilibrium
The state in which the rates of forward and reverse reactions are equal.
Enzyme
A protein that facilitates chemical reactions.
Substrates
The molecules that bind to the active site of an enzyme and undergo a chemical reaction.
Product
The molecules that are formed as a result of a chemical reaction.
Active site
The region on an enzyme where the substrate binds and the chemical reaction takes place.
Enzyme-Substrate complex
The temporary complex formed when the enzyme binds to its substrate.
Enzyme complex
The complex formed when an enzyme binds to multiple substrates.
Reaction rate
The speed at which a chemical reaction occurs.
Chemical equilibrium
The state in which the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant over time.
Equilibrium constant (Keq)
The ratio of the concentrations of reactants and products at chemical equilibrium.
Rate constant
The proportionality constant that relates the rate of a chemical reaction to the concentration of reactants.
Order of reaction
Describes how the concentration of a reactant affects the rate of a chemical reaction.
Steady state
A state in which the concentrations of reactants and products are constant, but the reaction rates are not the same.
Binding reactions
The noncovalent binding of molecules, such as proteins to DNA.
Dissociation constant (Kd)
The equilibrium constant for a binding reaction, indicating the affinity of a molecule for another molecule.
pH
A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Acid
A molecule that tends to release protons.
Base
A molecule that tends to take up protons.
Zwitterions
Molecules, such as amino acids, that have groups that can release protons and groups that can take up protons.
Buffers
Substances that can take up protons and hydroxyl ions, helping to maintain a stable pH in a solution.
Reaction rate
The speed at which a chemical reaction takes place, determined by the reaction constant and the concentrations of the reactants.
Equilibrium constant (Keq)
The ratio of the forward and reverse reaction rates at equilibrium.
Steady state
A state in which the concentrations of reactants and products in a cell remain constant over time.
Dissociation constant (Kd)
The measure of the affinity between a ligand and its binding site, with lower values indicating higher affinity.
pKa
The measure of how easily a molecule can release protons, with lower values indicating easier release.
Buffers
Substances that help maintain a stable pH by limiting fluctuations in the pH value.
Kinetic energy
The energy of movement.
Potential energy
The stored energy an object has due to its position or state.
Biochemical energetics
The study of energy transformation in cellular processes.
Exergonic reactions
Reactions that release energy, with products containing less free energy than the reactants.
Endergonic reactions
Reactions that absorb energy, with products containing more free energy than the reactants.
Gibbs free energy (ΔG)
The change in free energy of a reaction, with negative values indicating exergonic reactions and positive values indicating endergonic reactions.
Chemical system
A collection of chemicals that can react with each other.
Enthalpy (H)
The energy of the bonds of molecules in a chemical system.
Entropy (S)
A measure of the disorder or randomness of a system.
Activation energy
The energy required to reach the transition state of a reaction.
Catalysts
Substances that lower the activation energy of a reaction, increasing the rate of the reaction.
Coupled reactions
Endergonic reactions that are made possible by coupling them to exergonic reactions.
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, a molecule that serves as the energy currency of cells.
NAD+ and FAD
Electron carrier molecules that transfer electrons from one molecule to another in cellular reactions.
Enzyme catalysis
The process by which enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions.
Ligand
A molecule that binds to a protein or enzyme.
Active site
The part of an enzyme where the substrate binds and the catalytic reaction takes place.
Specificity
The ability of a protein or enzyme to bind to different ligands.
Affinity
The strength of the binding between a protein or enzyme and its ligand, measured by the dissociation constant (Kd).
Michaelis constant (Km)
The substrate concentration at which the reaction rate is half of its maximum value.
Enzymatic reaction
A reaction that is catalyzed by an enzyme.
Substrate
The molecule that an enzyme acts upon in an enzymatic reaction.
Enzyme
A protein that catalyzes biochemical reactions.
Affinity
The strength of the binding between an enzyme and its substrate.
Michaelis constant (Km)
The substrate concentration at half-maximal reaction rate.
Reaction rate
The speed at which a reaction occurs.
Product formation
The creation of a product molecule in an enzymatic reaction.
Michaelis-Menten equation
An equation that describes the rate of product formation in an enzymatic reaction.
Catalytic site
The specific location on an enzyme where the reaction takes place.
Peptide bond
A covalent bond between two amino acids in a protein.
Hydrogen bond
A weak bond formed between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.
Transition state
The intermediate state of a reaction where the reactants are in the process of forming products.
Acyl enzyme
An intermediate complex formed during the cleavage of a peptide bond.
Protein folding
The process by which a protein adopts its three-dimensional structure.
Molecular complementarity
The matching of shapes and chemical properties between an enzyme and its substrate.
Noncovalent interactions
Weak interactions between molecules that do not involve the sharing of electrons.
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