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Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
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LW

Patterns for College Writing

Quiz 1 (Pages 1-80)

  • Writing Process:

    • UNDERSTAND THE ASSIGNMENT

    • Invention

    • Arrangement

    • Drafting and Revising

    • Editing and Proofreading

    • Publishing/Turning it in

  • What part of the writing process must occur?

    • UNDERSTANDING THE ASSIGNMENT

    • Drafting and Revising

    • Editing and Proofreading

  • True or false? The writing process is a linear model, and all authors write in the order of the steps

  • True or false? Most good writing occurs when a writer gets stuck or confused, but continues to work until ideas begin to take shape

  • True or false? No two writers approach the writing process the same way

  • Critical Thinking: evaluating the ideas of others, to form judgements, and to develop original viewpoints.

  • True or false? Readers bring their own ideas to what they read when critical reading occurs

  • True or false? All interpretations of a reading are correct due to our differences

  • True or false? It is important for each reader to develop an interpretation that the work itself supports

  • What are active reading strategies?

    • Approaching an assigned reading with a clear understanding of your purpose and marking the text to help you understand what you are reading

  • Purpose: why are you reading this?

    • Will you be expected to discuss what you are reading?

    • Will you have to write about what you are reading?

    • Will you be tested on this material?

  • Preview: trying to get a sense of the writer’s main idea, key supporting points, and general emphasis

  • What clues should you look for when previewing?

    • Visual Signals

    • Verbal Signals

  • Visual Signals

    • Looking at the title

    • Looking for headings

    • Looking at each paragraph’s first sentence

    • Look for words in bold and italics

  • Verbal signals

    • Phrases like primary, that show emphasis

    • Repetition of words

    • Time sequencing words

    • Look for words the identify cause and effects

    • Words that introduce examples

  • True or false? Annotations suggest questions

  • After your questions have been answered, you will be able to answer with:

    • Greater accuracy

    • More confidence

    • More authority

  • True or false? When you annotate, you carry on a conversation with the text

  • What are visual texts?

    • Photographs

    • Diagram

    • Graph

    • Chart

  • True or false? Annotating a visual text can be helpful just like texts

  • What are visual elements?

    • Arrangement of shapes

    • Use of color

    • Contrast between large and small or light and dark

  • Questions to ask about visual texts:

    • Why was the visual created?

    • What kind of audience is it aimed at?

    • How would you characterize the visual?

  • Invention (prewriting): an important and most neglected part of the writing process; here you discover what interests you about your subject and consider what ideas to develop in your essay

  • If the assignment is written as a question, read it carefully several times and underline its key words

  • If the assignment is read aloud by your instructor, be sure to copy it accurately

  • Before writing, what should you consider?

    • What your limits are.

  • Limits in Writing:

    • Length

    • Purpose

    • Audience

    • Occasion: situation or situations that lead someone to write about a topic

    • Knowledge

  • True or false? Often, your audience is too vast to be categorized and is instead a universal audience.

  • True or false? Experts in one field need background information in other fields

  • True or false? General subjects do not need to be narrowed to specific topics

  • True or false? When you freewrite, you write for a fixed period, perhaps five or ten minutes, without stopping and without paying attention to spelling, grammar, or punctuation.

  • Focused free writing or looping: process of writing more and more specific freewriting exercises

  • Brainstorming: a way of discovering ideas about your topic

  • True or false? Journal entries are more narrow than free writing or brainstorming

  • Clustering: a way of visually arranging ideas so that they can tell at a glance where ideas belong and whether or not you need more information

  • Informal outlines do not include all the major divisions like a formal outline does

  • Thesis: main idea of your essay, its central point

  • True or false? A thesis statement can be a fact

  • Three Characteristics of an Effective Thesis Statement:

    • Clearly expresses your essay’s main idea

    • Communicates your essay’s purpose

    • Clearly worded

  • Implied thesis conveys an essay’s purpose, but does not do so explicitly

  • True or false? Most of the time, you should utilize an implied thesis

  • In arrangement, it is important to recognize the clues of what an assignment gives and structure it properly.

  • True or false? An essay must have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion

  • Introduction: introduces your subject, creates interest, and OFTEN STATES YOUR THESIS

    • Begin with background information - this works well if you KNOW THE AUDIENCE

    • Introduce an essay with your original definition of a relevant term or concept - USEFUL FOR RESEARCH PAPERS OR TESTS

    • Begin with a story

    • Begin with a question

    • Begin with a quotation

    • Begin with a contradiction

    • Begin with a fact or statistic

  • True or false? Each body paragraph should be unified

  • True or false? Sometimes the main idea of a paragraph is not stated but implied by the sentences in the paragraph

    • Professional writers often use this technique because a topic sentence may be awkward

  • True or false? Each sentence in a paragraph should develop the paragraph’s main idea, if not, the paragraph will lack unity

  • Each body paragraph should be coherent - sentences are smoothly and logically connected to one another

    • Repeat key words

    • Use transitions

    • Use pronouns

  • True or false? Support should be documented but not all

  • Each body paragraph should be well developed - contain support

    • Details

    • Expert opinions

    • Visuals

    • Facts

    • Stats

  • Support should be relevant, specific, adequate, representative, and documented

  • True or false? Each body paragraph should support the thesis statement

  • Conclusion: very important because it is what your readers remember last

  • True or false? Always end your essay in a way that reinforces your thesis and your purpose

  • True or false? A conclusion is usually longer than a paragraph

  • True or false? A conclusion can introduce points you have not discussed earlier

  • What are some ways to conclude your essay?

    • Reviewing your key points or restating your thesis

    • Ending with a recommendation of a course of action

    • Concluding with a prediction

    • End with a relevant quote

  • True or false? Formal outlines are detailed, multilevel constructions that indicate the exact order in which you will present your key points and supporting details

  • True or false? The complexity of your paper is what decides if you use a formal or informal outline

  • What is the purpose of your first draft?

    • Get your ideas down on paper so that you can react to them

  • True or false? While drafting, you should begin with a conclusion

  • Revision should occur simultaneously while writing

  • An outline can show you whether your essay follows a particular pattern of development

  • What can clarify the relationship between your thesis statement and your body paragraphs?

    • A formal or informal outline

  • How to critique your peers?

    • Positive

    • Tactful

    • Specific

    • Involved

    • Thorough

    • Look at the big picture

  • What suggests your essay’s purpose?

    • The occasion

  • Formal outlines are for arrangement, informal outlines are for brainstorming (invention)

  • Why is it not a good idea to write your introduction until you have already written your first draft?

    • A misrepresentation introduction that does not match the tone of the rest of the paper hurts your credibility

  • Formal outlines must use either subjects or topic sentences, not both

  • What is one way to narrow your general subject to a specific topic?

    • Question for Probing

      • Who did it?

      • Where did it happen?

      • What happened?

      • How is it made?

Quiz 2 (Narration, 97-108)

  • Narration: tells a story by presenting events in an orderly, logical sequence

  • Types of writing that follow narration:

    • Histories

    • Biographies

    • Autobiographies

    • Personal letters

    • Diaries

    • Journals

    • Bios on web pages/social networking websites

  • True or false? narration also underlies folk and fairy tales and radio and television news reports.

  • Anytime you tell what happened = narration

  • True or false? Narrative passages may also appear in essays that are not primarily narrative

  • What two essays does the textbook list as being alike to narrative?

    • Process Essay

    • Cause-and-effect Essay

  • True or false? A narrative essay is more likely to present a sequence of events for the purpose of supporting a thesis

  • Although it is usually best to have an explicit thesis statement in a narrative, what is a way you can have an implied thesis?

    • Through your selection and arrangement of events

  • What do narratives need to be convincing?

    • Rich, details to create a picture for the reader

  • What do details do for the audience of a narrative?

    • Adds interest and authenticity

  • What can you do to decrease the monotonous sequencing found in narratives?

    • Vary your sentence structure

  • What causes you to either follow or not follow a strict chronological order?

    • The purpose of your narrative

  • What are flashbacks?

    • Shifts into the past used in personal or fictional narratives to tell your story

  • Why is it important to use correct verb tenses and clear transitional words and phrases in narratives?

    • To help readers follow the order of events in your narrative

  • What is extremely important in writing that recounts events in a fixed order?

    • Verb tense

  • What verb tense must you use when discussing works of literature?

    • Present tense

  • What helps link events in time, enabling narratives to flow smoothly?

    • Transitions

  • What are transitions?

    • Connecting words or phrases

  • What are the transitions commonly used in narrative writing?

    • First

    • Second

    • Next

    • Then

    • Later

    • At the same time

    • Meanwhile

    • Immediately

    • Soon

    • Before

    • Earlier

    • After

    • Afterward

    • Now

    • Finally

  • Where will a narrative’s thesis appear?

    • Introduction

  • What do the body paragraphs function as in narrative writing?

    • Recount the events that make up your narrative, clearly and orderly

  • What does the conclusion do in a narrative?

    • Give the sense the narrative is complete, perhaps by restating your thesis or by summarizing key points/events

  • What ensures your statements in a narrative are easy to understand?

    • Exact details

    • Dates

    • Times

    • Geographic locations

  • What should a revision checklist be like for narrative essays?

    • Does your assignment call for narration?

    • Does your essay’s thesis communicate the significance of the events you discusseD?

    • Have you included enough specific details?

    • Have you varied your sentence structure?

    • Is the order of events clear to readers?

    • Have you varied sentence openings and combined short sentences to avoid monotony?

    • Do your transitions indicate the order of events and signal shifts in time?

  • What issues are particularly relevant to narrative essays?

    • Mechanics

    • Punctuation issues

    • Grammar

    • AVOIDING RUN-ONS

  • What are the two kinds of run-ons?

    • Fused sentences

    • Comma splices

  • A ___________ occurs when two sentences are incorrectly joined without punctuation?

    • Fused sentence

  • A ___________ occurs when two sentences are incorrectly joined with just a comma?

    • Comma splice

  • What are the 5 ways to correct a run-on?

    • Use a period to create two separate sentences

    • Join sentences with a comma and a coordinating conjunction

    • Join the sentences with a semicolon

    • Semicolon and a transitional word

    • Create a complex sentence - adding a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun

  • Narration checklist for editing?

    • Have you avoided run-ons?

    • Do your verb tenses clearly indicate time relationships between events?

    • Have you avoided unnecessary tense shifts?

    • If you use dialogue, have you punctuated correctly and capitalized where necessary/

Quiz 3 (Description, 151-161)

  • Description is used to tell readers about the physical characteristics of a person, place, or thing

  • What does description rely on?

    • Sight

    • Hearing

    • Taste

    • Touch

    • Smell

  • True or false? Description often goes beyond personal sense impressions

  • When you write description, you use language to create a vivid impression for your readers

  • What essays does the textbook list as description being used within?

    • Comparison-and-contrast

    • Argumentative

  • Through description, you communicate your view of the world to your readers

  • True or false? In almost every essay you write, knowing how to write effective description is important

  • Description can be objective or ____?

    • Subjective

  • In an _________ description, you focus on the object itself rather than on your personal reactions to it

    • Objective

  • In objective description, what is your purpose?

    • Present a precise, literal picture of your subject

  • True or false? In selecting some details and leaving out others, writers are making subjective decisions

  • True or false? Objective descriptions are sometimes accompanied by visuals

    • Visuals - diagrams, drawings, or photographs

  • True or false? A visual can introduce new material

  • What does subjective description do?

    • Conveys your personal response to your subject

  • True or false? In subjective description, your perspective is stated explicitly

  • Subjective description should convey not just a literal record of sights and sounds but also their significance.

  • True or false? Neither objective nor subjective description exists independently

  • The skillful writer adjusts the balance between objectivity and subjectivity to suit the topic, thesis, audience, and purpose.

  • Connotation: the feeling expressed by word

  • Denotation: direct and literal meaning of words

  • What are examples of figures of speech?

    • Simile

    • Metaphor

    • Personification

    • Allusion

  • A simile uses like or as to compare two dissimilar things

  • A metaphor compares two dissimilar things without using like or as

  • Personification speaks of concepts or objects as if they had life or human characteristics

  • Allusion is a reference to a person, place, event, or quotation that the writers assumes readers will recognize

  • Your purpose and audience determines whether you should use objective or subjective description

  • All good descriptive writing, whether objectives or subjective, relies on specific details

  • You should not tell readers, but show them

  • What factors influence the kinds of details you include?

    • Level

    • Background

    • Knowledge of your audience

  • Implied thesis describes a person, place, or thing

    • this conveys an essay’s main idea subtly

  • Explicitly stated thesis - supports a particular point

    • immediately what point the writer is making

  • Transitions:

    • Above

    • Adjacent to

    • At the bottom

    • At the top

    • Behind

    • Below

    • Beyond

    • In front of

    • In the middle

    • Next to

    • Over

    • Under

    • Through

    • Within

  • Dominant impression - the mood or quality emphasized in the piece of writing

  • What are the parts of a descriptive essay?

    • Introduction - presents the thesis or dominant impression

    • Body paragraph - includes details that support the thesis or covey the dominant impression

    • Conclusion - reinforces thesis or dominant impression (uses simile or metaphor)

  • True or false? The arrangement strategy you choose depends on the dominant impression you want to convey, your thesis, and your purpose and audience

  • What do you use in descriptive essays to describe places, people, and objects

    • Modifying words and Phrases

    • Misplaced modifier: appears to modify the wrong word because it is placed incorrectly in the sentence

    • Avoid dangling modifiers: it cannot logically modify any word that appears in the sentence

  • Checklist for Description:

    • Have you avoided misplaced modifiers?

    • Have you avoided dangling modifiers?

    • Have you used figures of speech effectively?

    • Have you avoided general words such as nice, great, and terrific?

Quiz 4 (Exemplification, 211-217)

  • Exemplification - uses one or more particular cases (examples) to illustrate/explain a general point or an abstract concept

  • The most effective exchanges occur when examples are used

    • Generalizations and vague statements are not as effective

  • Exemplification is used in every kind of writing situation:

    • Explaining and Clarifying

    • Add Interest

    • Persuade

  • What is the benefit of examples when clarifying?

    • Readers know what exactly you mean

  • What is the purpose of using examples to add interest?

    • To communicate your ideas

      • Use examples that are pertinent to your subject

  • What is the benefit of examples when persuading?

    • Back up your argument/prove your claim

  • What is an exemplification essay’s thesis statement?

    • Makes a point that the rest of the essay will support with examples

      • This statement identifies your topic

  • True or false? The examples you gather during the invention stage of the writing process can help you develop your thesis.

  • True or false? There is a rule for how many examples you should write into your essay?

  • The number of examples you use depends on your ______.

    • Thesis statement

  • What is a statistical study?

    • collection and interpretation of numerical data representing a great many examples

  • True or false? Selecting a sufficient range of examples is just as important as choosing an appropriate number

  • What is your objective when using examples?

    • Choose a cross section of examples

  • True or false? Do not use transitional words or phrases to introduce your examples

  • Transitions help you connect examples to thesis statements or examples to topic statements

  • Introduction

    • Thesis Statement

  • Body Paragraphs

    • Each has a separate example that develops the thesis

  • Conclusion

    • Reinforces main idea of essay, and maybe restates the thesis

  • What is the organizational problem with exemplification?

    • Can become too choppy or list-like

  • How to organize exemplification?

    • Chronologically

    • In order of increasing complexity (simple to most difficult)

    • In order of importance (less significant to more significant/persuasive)

  • What is an issue in editing exemplification?

    • Commas

Quiz 5 (Process, 263-269)

  • Process essay: explains how to do something or how something occurs

  • True or false? Process presents events in chronological order

  • What is important with process?

    • Clarity

  • True or false? Clear, logical transitionals need to be provided in a process essay

  • Process essays need to present the steps in a STRICT chronological order, an exact order in where they occur.

  • What are the two types of process essays?

    • Instructions

    • Process Explanations

  • What is the purpose of instructions in a process essay?

    • Enable readers to perform a process

  • True or false? An example of instructions would be a recipe: “Add in the flour, crack the eggs”

  • What is the purpose of process explanation in a process essay?

    • Not to enable readers to perform a process but rather to help them understand how it is carried out

  • A process explanation may use 1st person (I, we) OR the 3rd (he, she, it, they)

  • True or false? Process Explanations can use first person (present/past) or third person (present/past)

  • True or false? Second person (you) or commands may be used

  • What does the style of writing depend on?

    • If the process takes place regularly or one that occured in the past

    • If the writer or someone else carries out the steps

  • True or false? College writing frequently calls for instructions or process explanations.

  • What is your primary goal with a process essay?

    • Depict the process accurately

  • What is an important aspect of planning a process essay?

    • Accommodating Your Audience

      • Be clear

      • Use illustrations

      • Flow of essay

  • What does a thesis statement do for a process essay?

    • Sets up the instructions and process explanations

  • What transitions should be used?

    • First, second, meanwhile, after this, next, then, at the same time, when you have finished, and finally

  • Introduction: identifies the process and indicates why and under what circumstances it is performed

  • Body: each treats one major stage of the process

  • Conclusion: a shorter essay may not need a formal conclusion; if there is a conclusion, it will briefly review the procedure’ s major stages

    • Useful if the technical procedure may seem complicated

    • Conclusion also reinforces the thesis

  • Grammar - consistent in:

    • Verb tense (past or present)

    • Person (first, second, or third)

    • Voice (active or passive)

    • Mood (statements or commands)

  • Unnecessary shifts in tense, person, voice, or mood can confuse readers and make it difficult for them to follow your process.

Quiz 6 (Cause and Effect, 321-331)

  • Cause and Effect analyzes why something happens

  • What do cause-and-effect essays do?

    • Examine causes, describe effects, or BOTH

  • Cause and effect links situations and event together with causes preceding effects

  • Cause and Effect is more than sequence, but also why something happened, or is happening, and predicts what probably will happen

  • When you write about situations, you need to give a balanced analysis

    • Not just the most obvious situations

  • Main cause: most important

  • Contributory causes: other causes that had some effect

    • Understanding the distinction between main and contributory is ESSENTIAL

  • Immediate cause: closely precede an effect and is therefore easy to recognize

  • Remote cause: less obvious, perhaps because it involves something in the past or far away.

  • Assuming the most obvious cause is always important can be dangerous as well as short-sighted

  • Casual Chain: where A causes B, B causes C, etc.

  • In casual chains, the result of one action is the cause of another

    • Leaving out any links in this chain, destroys the logic and continuity of the chain

  • Post hoc reasoning: equates a chronological sequence with causality

  • Do not mistake coincidence for causality

  • Three Basic Options:

    • Discuss causes

    • Discuss effects

    • Discuss both!

  • A cause-and-effect essay presents and supports a particular thesis

    • Thesis Statement: identifies the relationships among the specific causes or effects you will discuss

  • Options of Arrangement:

    • Chronological Order

    • Main Cause 1st, then Contributory Causes

    • Contributory Causes 1st, then Main Cause

  • Transitions: allow readers to distinguish main from contributory causes. also essential in a casual chain, for sequencing purposes

    • First cause,

    • Second cause,

    • One result,

    • Another result,

  • Editing:

    • Focus on grammar, mechanics, and punctuation

    • Avoiding faulty reasons

    • Using affect and effect correctly

Quiz 7 (Argumentation, 524-541)

  • Argumentation is a process of reasoning that asserts the soundness of a debatable position, belief, or conclusion.

  • Argumentation takes a stand - SUPPORTED BY EVIDENCE - and urges people to share the writer’s perspective and insights

  • Argumentation can be used to convince other people to accept (or at least see the validity of) your position.

  • Persuasion is a general term that refers to how a writer influences an audience to adopt a belief or follow a course of action.

  • Argumentation is the appeal to reason (logos).

  • What is the primary purpose of Argumentation?

    • To demonstrate that certain ideas are valid and others are not.

  • How is argumentation unlike persuasion?

    • Argumentation has a formal structure

  • What are the usual appeals in arguments?

    • Main: reason

    • Secondary: emotions

  • True or false? In an argumentative essay, choosing the right topic is important

  • Purpose: what you expect your argument to accomplish and how you wish your audience to respond

  • Thesis: state the position you will argue

  • True or false? Your thesis must take a stand - be debatable.

  • What is a good way to test the suitability of your thesis?

    • Formulate an antithesis: a statement that asserts the opposite position

  • What is best to assume?

    • Some of your readers are skeptical

  • What is the dual challenge in an argumentative essay?

    • Appealing to readers who are neutral or even hostile to your position

    • Influence those readers to be receptive to your viewpoint

  • True or false? You MUST provide evidence that will support your thesis and establish a line of reasoning

  • Evidence: facts and opinions in support of your position

  • True or false? Evidence can be fact only

    • Can be opinions as well

  • Facts: statements that most people agree are true and that can be verified independently

  • What are the most commonly used type of evidence?

    • Facts - specifically, statistics

  • Opinions: interpretations of facts

  • True or false? Not all opinions are equally convincing

  • What kind of evidence might change readers’ minds?

    • This depends on the readers, the issue, and the facts at hand

  • Criteria for Evidence:

    • Evidence should be RELEVANT

    • Evidence should be REPRESENTATIVE

      • Examples and Expert opinions should be typical, not deviate from the thesis or argument

    • Evidence should be SUFFICIENT

  • True or false? Whether you use such evidence, you have to document it by providing the source of your information.

  • Documentation: gives readers the ability to evaluate the sources you cite and to consult them if they wish

    • Helps you avoid plagiarism

    • Common knowledge: information you could easily find in several reference sources

  • True or false? You should always try to identify the most obvious - and even the not-so-obvious - objections to your position.

    • By directly addressing these objections, you will help convince readers your own position is valid

  • Refutation: the act of saying or proving that a person, statement, opinion, etc. is wrong or false

    • Refute by showing these viewpoints are unsound, unfair, or weak

  • Straw man: distorting an opponent’s argument by making it seem weaker than it actually is - [this is a bad thing]

  • True or false? All arguments should be confrontational

  • What does the Rogerian argument suggest?

    • Considering those who disagree with you as colleagues, NOT adversaries

  • Deductive reasoning: proceeds from a general premise or assumption to a specific conclusion

  • Inductive reasoning: induction proceeds from individual observations to a more general conclusion

  • Syllogism: the basic form of a deductive argument

    • Major premise: general statement

    • Minor premise: related but more specific statement

    • Conclusion: drawn from these premises

  • Self-evident: so obvious that it needs no proof

  • When a conclusion follows logically from the major and minor premises, then the argument is said to be VALID

  • True or false? If the syllogism is not logical, the argument is not valid

  • Undistributed: it covers only some of the items in the class it denotes

  • Distributed: it covers all the items in the class it denotes

  • Sound: a syllogism must be both logical and true

  • Inference: statement about the unknown based on the known

  • Jumping to Conclusion: when the gap between your evidence and conclusion is too great

  • Inductive leap: crucial step from evidence to conclusion

  • Inductive conclusions are never certain, only highly probable

    • Since inductive conclusions are just inferences and opinions

  • Toulmin logic: tries to describe how argumentative strategies a writer uses lead readers to respond the way they do:

    • Claim: main point of essay

    • Grounds: material a writer uses to support the claim

    • Warrant: inference that connects the claim to be grounds

  • Fallacies: illogical statements that may sound reasonable or true but are actually deceptive and dishonest

  • Analogy: form of comparison that explains something unfamiliar by comparing it do something familiar

  • Jumping to Conclusion = Hasty or Sweeping Generalization

  • Transitional words are phrases are EXTREMELY important in argumentative essays

    • Examples that support your argument:

      • First

      • Second

      • Third

      • In addition

      • Finally

    • Examples that refute opposing arguments:

      • Still

      • Nevertheless

      • However

      • Yet

    • What transitional words are useful when presenting your argument's conclusion?

      • Therefore

      • For this reason

Quiz 8 (Classification and Division, 435)

  • Division is the process of breaking a whole into parts

  • Classification is the process of sorting individual items into categories

  • Through classification and division, we can make sense of seemingly random ideas by putting scattered bits of information into useful, coherent order.

  • When you _____, you begin with individual items and sort them into categories

    • Classify

  • The principle of classification you choose, which is the quality your items have in common, depends on _________________.

    • How you wish to approach the members of this diverse group

  • True or false? Division is the opposite of classification

  • When you divide, you start with a whole and break it into its individual parts

  • True or false? Eventually, when dividing, you have to identify a principle of classification to help break them into their parts

  • Classification and division is used to bring order to the invention stage of the writing process

  • What words suggest classification and division?

    • Types

    • Kinds

    • Varieties

    • Aspects

    • Categories

  • Thesis statement: should identity your subject, introduce the categories you will discuss, and perhaps show readers the relationships of your categories to one another and to the subject as a whole.

  • Transitional words in classification and division essays do?

    • Introduce your categories

    • Move readers from one category to the next

    • Show relationships between categories

      • If one category is more important than another

  • Introduction: orient readers + thesis

  • Body Paragraphs: discuss your categories one by one, in the same order in which you mentioned in your introduction.

  • Conclusion: restate thesis and sum up the points made

  • What is a grammar mistake common in Classification and Division?

    • Using a colon to introduce your categories without a complete sentence following the colon

    • In any list or series of three or more categories, the categories should be separated by commas, with a comma preceding the and that separates the last two items

Quiz 9 (Comparison and Contrast, 371)

  • Comparison shows how two or more things are similar

  • Contrast shows how they are different

  • In most writing, comparison and contrast are used together

  • Analogy: explains one thing by comparing it to a second, more familiar thing

  • Key Words signifying contrast/compare?

    • Similarities and differences

    • Relative merits

    • Advantages and disadvantages

    • Greater or lesser

  • When you evaluate a subject, you often use compare and contrast

  • Before you can compare and contrast two things, you MUST establish a basis for comparison: that two things have enough in common to justify the comparison

  • When two subjects are very similar, contrast may help

  • When two subjects are very different, comparing may help

  • You need to select points for discussion between the two subjects

  • Thesis statement: should tell readers what to expect in your essay, identifying not only the subjects to be compared and contrasted but also the point you will make about them.

  • A thesis statement should highlight the essay’s central concern

  • Two Strategies:

    • Subject-by-Subject

      • Separate essay about each subject, but discuss the same points for both subjects

    • Point-by-Point

      • Make a point about one subject and follow it with a comparable point about the other subject

  • Transitions:

    • Compare:

      • In comparison

      • In the same way

      • Like

      • Likewise

      • Similarly

    • Contrast:

      • Although

      • But

      • Conversely

      • However

      • In contrast

  • Issue in compare and contrast essays:

    • Parallelism: the use of matching nouns, verbs, phrases, or clauses to express the same or similar ideas

      • Not being specific enough to know what a noun/verb/pronoun is referring to?

Quiz 10 (Definition, 489)

  • Definition: tells what a term means and how it differs from other terms in its class

  • Formal Definitions: brief, succinct explanations

  • Extended Definitions: explaining what something or someone is

  • True or false? All definitions have three parts

    • 1. The term to be defined

    • 2. The general class the term is a part of

    • 3. The qualities that differentiate it from other terms in the same class

  • True or false? Many extended-definition essays include short formal definitions

  • An extended definition does not follow a set pattern of development, but utilizes the most beneficial strategy

  • True or false? Providing a formal definition of each term you use is usually not necessary or desirable.

  • Definitions can explain abstractions, controversial terms, and slang terms

  • Slang Terms: informal expressions whose meanings may vary from locale to locale or change as time passes.

  • The thesis of a definition essay needs to make it clear to readers the larger purpose for which you are defining the term.

  • What are the 5 types of Pattern of Development?

    • Exemplification

      • Examples to explain a term

    • Description

      • Explain the nature of something by describing it

    • Comparison and Contrast

      • Compares/Contrasts a term with something else to allow a reader to better understand it

    • Process

      • Explains a conceptual process

    • Classification and Division

      • Define both formal and extended definitions

  • Whatever form your definition take, make certain that they clearly define your terms

  • Careful attention to the language and structure of your definition will help readers understand your meaning

  • Intro: identifies the term to be defined

  • Body:

    • Defines the term through synonyms

    • Defines the term by using negation

    • Defines the term by using an analogy

    • Defines the term by discussing its origin and development

  • Conclusion: reminds readers why you have chosen to define the term

  • When editing a definition essay, be sure to avoid when and where

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Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
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