CH5-Bellorado-Anderson 2013-Early Pueblo Responses to Climate Variability in The Eastern Mesa Verde Region

INTRODUCTION

In this paper, the authors explore how early Puebloan cultures in the Eastern Mesa Verde (EMV) area, specifically the Upper and Middle San Juan regions, responded to climatic variability and its impact on their agricultural practices and social organization. The study investigates how different groups within this region adapted to climate-related challenges and how these responses left cultural imprints. The focus is on agricultural adaptations and their influence on demographic shifts during the late seventh through middle ninth centuries. The paper also examines how changes in temperature and drought severity influenced the movements of farming societies in the EMV area. The authors emphasize the intimate relationship between climate and ancient Puebloan farming practices.

A CONTEXT FOR EARLY AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS: ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT AGRICULTURAL LIFEWAYS IN PREHISTORY

The analysis begins with several fundamental assumptions about the lifeways of Ancestral Puebloan cultures, particularly regarding agriculture and maize farming. First, it assumes that maize farming was a central focus, providing up to 80% of annual diets in the northern Southwest, shaping agricultural strategies, and influencing religious practices related to controlling weather for crop production. Second, it assumes that prehistoric people had extensive knowledge of local and regional ecologies, resulting in diverse agricultural practices suited to specific environmental and social requirements. These agricultural practices and crop varieties contributed to the identities of distinct communities. Lastly, the assumption is made that there was extensive and continuous interaction among different groups in the northern Southwest, with communities being aware of each other's prosperity or adversity, influencing social dynamics and perceptions of well-being.

LANDUSE BEFORE PUEBLO I

In the Upper San Juan region, various groups migrating to the uplands of the Eastern Mesa Verde (EMV) area brought diverse cultural practices, architectural styles, and subsistence strategies. Basketmaker III communities in the lower La Plata Valley played a role in influencing the Pueblo I communities in the upper La Plata and Animas Valleys due to shared ceramic and architectural characteristics. These migrations and cultural exchanges highlight the dynamic and complex nature of the prehistoric Southwest, with different groups contributing to the region's cultural diversity.

THE ETHNOGRAPHIC RECORD AND A CAUSAL VIEW OF
HUMAN-NATURE INTERACTIONS

Ancient Puebloan societies heavily relied on religious practices and held a causal view of climate change, believing that their actions could influence natural events. This perspective often conflicts with scientific explanations. For example, the Hopi associated cicadas' sounds with heat and believed that the insect's music caused warmer weather. Such views shaped their understanding of the natural world and their place within it. Ethnographic examples inform how prehistoric people might have responded to changing climates. This article uses these analogies to explore climate change, settlement patterns, and demographic shifts in the Eastern Mesa Verde area's prehistoric record.

FINE-GRAINED DROUGHT SEVERITY INDICES AND TEMPERATURE

PROXIES FOR THE NORTHERN SOUTHWEST

The study uses fine-grained annual reconstructions of the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and temperature data to investigate how Ancestral Puebloan cultures in the Eastern Mesa Verde (EMV) area responded to climatic shifts during 150-year periods (A.D. 700–850 and A.D. 800–950). The approach aligns with Richard Ford's perspective, emphasizing the importance of considering climatic extremes and fluctuations, rather than just mean values, to understand cultural responses to environmental conditions. The researchers use PDSI and temperature reconstructions for specific subregions within the northern Southwest, comparing Durango and Gobernador areas to Mesa Verde and Chaco. Fluctuations in these climatic variables significantly influenced agriculture and cultural processes.

ALLUVIAL FAN FARMING: THE CONTEXT OF LOCAL SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES FOR EARLY FARMERS IN THE EASTERN MESA VERDE REGION

Before the eighth century, different farming methods were used in the northern Southwest. In the uplands of the Eastern Mesa Verde, people focused on floodwater farming, similar to a type called ak'chin farming. Meanwhile, in the Western Mesa Verde, they used dryland farming on mesa tops. Over time, people from the Western Mesa Verde moved to the Central Mesa Verde, bringing their dryland farming techniques. In the Chaco area, they relied on floodwater farming. These various farming methods were adapted to the local environment and affected where people lived and how they identified themselves culturally, especially when the climate changed.

DURANGO’S CLIMATIC REFUGIA IN THE EARLY A.D. 700s

In the late 600s and early 700s, the northern Southwest saw significant climatic fluctuations, with frequent temperature shifts and changing precipitation patterns. These abrupt climate changes prompted a major population movement, especially in the Eastern Mesa Verde (EMV) region. People in the EMV, including the Durango area, found refuge in the upland reaches of the Animas River drainage during a region-wide drought. The newcomers, although using familiar settlement patterns from their homelands, formed larger settlements than previously seen in the EMV, leading to a demographic shift in the region. Similar population movements occurred across the northern Southwest, as people sought more favorable environments.

THE EARLIEST VILLAGES IN THE EASTERN MESA VERDE AND THE BASIS OF LEADERSHIP AND LAND TENURE IN THE DURANGO AREA

In the Durango region, the arrival of early settlers in the 700s created a social hierarchy known as "primocracy." The first groups to arrive claimed the best resources and maintained control over them, while later arrivals had assigned roles and access to resources based on their contributions to the community. Some of the initial settlers in Durango were likely descendants of local people, familiar with the region's prime resources and farming techniques, allowing them to assert their ancestral connection and control over valuable agricultural lands. This access to resources influenced their social status and ceremonial roles. Climatic fluctuations in the early 700s, with more favorable conditions in certain periods, drew people to specific areas. However, competition for agricultural lands and resources could lead to tensions between different ethnic groups within the community. In times of climatic stress, social pressure increased on community leaders and ritual specialists, who played crucial roles in influencing the community's response to environmental challenges, often through rituals and ceremonies related to weather control. These rituals were central to their leadership and status within the community.

EMERGING IDENTITIES IN THE FACE OF CONTACT AND
COMPETITION: RIDGES BASIN AFTER A.D. 775

Around 780 AD, a significant shift occurred in the Ridges Basin community in the Durango region. Earlier, pit structures were smaller and diverse in layout, while after 780 AD, larger, more uniform houses were built to emulate those at Sacred Ridge. This transformation marked Sacred Ridge as the primary center of the community, potentially linked to an attempt to secure control over prime agricultural lands. This shift could be in response to a decade-long dry spell that affected the Durango and Gobernador areas, impacting farming conditions. Rituals for ensuring good climatic conditions and agricultural success may have led to competition in the community. Climatic improvement in the late 770s likely reinforced Sacred Ridge's political control. Concurrently, other communities in the region, such as Blue Mesa and Grandview Mesa, expanded agricultural areas beyond alluvial fan farming, which may have been influenced by alternative leadership and land tenure strategies.

THE EXPANSION OF DRYLAND FARMING AND ITS AFFECTS ON
LEADERSHIP AND LAND TENURE IN THE DURANGO AREA

Around 780 AD, there was a significant shift in the Durango region's Ridges Basin community. Earlier, pit structures were smaller and diverse, but after 780 AD, larger and more uniform houses were constructed to mimic those at Sacred Ridge. This transformation indicated that Sacred Ridge became the central point of the community, possibly driven by efforts to secure control over prime agricultural lands. This change in leadership and land tenure strategies was influenced by the availability of dryland farming options, expanding agricultural areas beyond the traditional alluvial fan-based systems. It also marked a shift towards a more network-oriented leadership strategy at Sacred Ridge.

THE FAILURE OF SACRED RIDGE

The transition in Ridges Basin society around 780 AD and the subsequent events can be attributed to a complex interplay of factors, including agricultural strategies and climate variability. Changes in farming techniques, such as a shift from floodwater to dryland farming, allowed for the expansion of farmlands. However, this shift also introduced a competition between different ritual systems as communities had varying agricultural needs due to their unique environmental conditions. Ritual specialists were often blamed for adverse climatic events, causing mistrust and fear within the community. The collapse of the early Pueblo I communities and a significant climate downturn coincided, leading to questions about the effectiveness of the ritual specialists who may have been held responsible. The shift in social hierarchies and community organization, exemplified by the development of alternative leadership strategies in communities outside Ridges Basin, may have been influenced by these climatic and social challenges. Overall, these events highlight the complex relationship between environmental factors, ritual practices, and societal change.

POST-DURANGO VILLAGES IN THE EAST: CLIMATE, SOCIAL
ORGANIZATION, AND CULTURAL RESPONSES OF CLIMATE SHIFTS