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I. The French Revolution (1789-1799)
if you don’t want to look through the whole thing, the main points are on flashcards 1, 5, 10, and 14
The French Revolution was driven by social inequality, financial crises, Enlightenment ideas, and political mismanagement.
1. Causes
Social Inequality:
The Estates System: Divided into First (Clergy), Second (Nobility), and Third (Commoners) Estates. The Third Estate suffered the most from taxes and didn’t have much political power.
Financial Crisis:
France’s debt from involvement in the American Revolution and extravagant spending by the monarchy.
An inefficient tax system where the wealthy were often exempt. The tax system was inefficient, often allowing the wealthy to avoid paying taxes.
Enlightenment Ideas:
Philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu challenged traditional authority and promoted ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Political Mismanagement:
Louis XVI's inability to manage the financial crisis and his indecisiveness made the problems worse.
2. Key Events
Estates-General (1789):
Called by Louis XVI to address the financial crisis. Led to the formation of the National Assembly by the Third Estate.
National Assembly and Tennis Court Oath (1789):
The Third Estate vowed not to disband until a new constitution was established.
Storming of the Bastille (1789):
Symbolic start of the revolution; the fall of the prison represented the end of the king’s absolute power.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789):
Proclaimed liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression as natural rights.
Reign of Terror (1793-1794):
Led by the Committee of Public Safety, which was dominated by Maximilien Robespierre. Thousands were executed by guillotine.
The Directory (1795-1799):
A more conservative/radical government that followed the radical phase but was plagued by corruption and inefficiency.
3. Impact
End of Absolute Monarchy:
France transitioned to different forms of republican government.
Rise of Republicanism:
Promoted democratic principles and the idea of popular sovereignty.
Social and Economic Reforms:
Abolition of feudal privileges and the adoption of meritocratic principles.
II. Napoleon's Era (1799-1815)
Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in France after the French Revolution, becoming Emperor in 1804. His rule involved military expansion across Europe through the Napoleonic Wars and the creation of the Napoleonic Code. He was ultimately defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
1. Rise to Power
Coup of 18 Brumaire, or more widely known as Coup D’ etat (1799):
Overthrew the Directory and established the Consulate with Napoleon as First Consul.
First Consul and Consulate (1799-1804):
Centralized administrative control and stabilized France.
Napoleonic Code (1804):
Unified legal code that ensured equality before the law and protected property rights (eliminated many injustices).
Coronation as Emperor (1804):
Napoleon crowned himself emperor, emphasizing his control and the continuation of revolutionary ideals, supported by the French people. He wanted to take over the rest of Europe.
2. Domestic Policies
Centralization of Administration:
Streamlined the government and reduced local autonomy.
Concordat with the Catholic Church (1801):
Reconciled the Catholic Church with the French state, restoring religious peace.
Educational Reforms:
Established lycées (secondary schools) to educate future leaders.
Economic and Legal Reforms:
Improved infrastructure and reformed the tax system to be more efficient.
3. Military Campaigns and Wars
Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815):
A series of conflicts with European powers.
Battle of Austerlitz (1805):
A decisive victory against Russia and Austria.
Peninsular War (1808-1814):
Protracted struggle in Spain that drained French resources.
Invasion of Russia (1812):
Disastrous campaign resulting in massive losses for the French army.
Battle of Leipzig (1813):
Major defeat leading to the retreat of Napoleon’s forces.
Battle of Waterloo (1815):
Final defeat by the Seventh Coalition led by the Duke of Wellington.
4. Napoleon's Downfall and Exile
Abdication (1814):
Forced to abdicate and exiled to Elba.
Hundred Days and Waterloo (1815):
Brief return to power before final defeat at Waterloo.
Final Exile to Saint Helena:
Lived out his remaining years under British custody.
III. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
The Congress of Vienna was a meeting of European leaders from 1814 to 1815. Its purpose was to restore order and stability after the Napoleonic Wars. Key representatives from Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain worked together to change borders and ensure no single country became too powerful. They aimed to bring back monarchies and created the Quadruple Alliance to help enforce the agreements. This congress helped shape Europe's political map for the 19th century.
1. Goals and Objectives
Restoration of Balance of Power:
Prevent any single nation from dominating Europe.
Legitimacy:
Restore legitimate monarchies that had been deposed by Napoleon.
Containment of France:
Strengthen surrounding countries to prevent future French aggression.
Concert of Europe:
A system of dispute resolution to maintain peace.
2. Key Figures
Klemens von Metternich (Austria):
Dominant figure advocating for conservative order.
Tsar Alexander I (Russia):
Promoted the Holy Alliance and Christian principles in European politics.
Lord Castlereagh (Britain):
Focused on a balanced power structure and maritime supremacy.
Prince Talleyrand (France):
Skillfully negotiated France’s position back into the European fold.
Karl August von Hardenberg (Prussia):
Worked on territorial expansions and balance.
3. Outcomes
Redrawing of the Map of Europe:
France's borders were returned to their 1792 state.
Creation of the German Confederation:
A loose association of German states under Austrian influence.
Territorial Adjustments and Compensation:
Redistribution of territories to maintain balance.
Lasting Peace and Stability in Europe:
Established a framework for European diplomacy lasting until World War I.
IV. Latin American Revolutions (Late 18th - Early 19th Centuries)
A series of uprisings in Latin America during the late 18th and early 19th centuries aimed at gaining independence from Spanish and Portuguese rule. Influenced by Enlightenment ideas and earlier revolutions, key figures like Simón Bolívar and Miguel Hidalgo led the revolutions, spurred by social inequality and economic exploitation. The revolutions resulted in the establishment of republics, although many nations faced challenges in achieving stability and equality post-independence.
1. Causes
Influence of Enlightenment Ideas:
Spread of ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Inspiration from American and French Revolutions:
Provided a successful model for breaking free from colonial rule.
Social Inequality and Racial Divisions:
Discontent among Creoles, Mestizos, and Indigenous populations.
Colonial Exploitation and Economic Policies:
Heavy taxation and trade restrictions imposed by colonial powers.
2. Key Figures
Simón Bolívar:
Known as "El Libertador", led independence movements in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.
José de San Martín:
Key leader in the southern part of South America, particularly Argentina and Chile.
Miguel Hidalgo:
Initiated the Mexican War of Independence with his famous "Grito de Dolores."
José Morelos:
Continued Hidalgo’s efforts and became a central figure in the Mexican independence movement.
3. Major Events
Venezuelan War of Independence (1810-1823):
Series of conflicts leading to the liberation of Venezuela.
Argentine War of Independence (1810-1818):
Struggle against Spanish rule, leading to the independence of Argentina.
Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821):
Prolonged conflict resulting in Mexico's independence from Spain.
Formation and Dissolution of Gran Colombia (1819-1831):
Short-lived union of several South American countries under Bolívar’s leadership.
4. Impact and Legacy
Independence of Latin American Countries:
Establishment of sovereign nations throughout Latin America.
End of Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Rule:
Dismantling of colonial structures.
Challenges of Nation-Building and Governance:
Struggles with political instability, caudillos, and economic challenges.
Influence on Future Revolutionary Movements:
Set a precedent for anti-colonial struggles worldwide.
