Crime and Society
Week 1: Introduction to Crime and Society
Criminology
An interdisciplinary profession built around the scientific study of crime and criminal behaviour, including their form, causes, legal aspects, prevention, and control
Interdisciplinary: touches on a wide range of academic disciplines=law, history, biology, philosophy, economics, etc
Capitalism breeds crime?
Causes: what decreases or increases the likelihood that someone will engage in criminal behaviour
People are not born criminal, but things can increase the likelihood
I.e. bad neighbourhood can help steer you towards a life of crime
Criminology can be broadly defined as the scientifc study of criminal behaviour, crime causation, crime prevention, and the punishment and/or rehabilitation of offenders.
Prevention: how can we prevent the crime from occuring.
How can we decrease the likelihood
Control: how can we establish control
The objective of criminology is the development of a body of general and verified principles of other types of knowledge regarding...law, crime, etc
White collar crimes: malpractice, insider trading, worker harm etc causes more harm than street crime
What is Crime?
Actions that violate the laws of the state- provincial, federal, etc
What is crime is a violation of the laws of the land
The state has the power and authority to make the law
Establishes social order
Crime is socially constructed
Crime can be defined in different was/ different perspectives:
Legalistic
Most familiar
It assumes that those who make yo the laws are powerful individuals
We vote them in, they make the laws and decide what is defined as law and crime
Focuses on street crime and not white collar crime
Crime cant be separate from the law
Their laws that we currently have, didn’t always exist
Changes with the values of society
Laws change slowly.
Political
Crime is built into the law, laws are made to create crime by political groups to label certain behaviours as illegal.
Those people could challenge their authority
Sociological
Crime is anti-social, deviant acts that need to be repressed to preserve the existing social order
Behaviour that violates the social order
Why are some harmful behaviour not criminal
Psychological
Crime is problem behaviour
Overly impulsive people
Behaviour that is atypical
Crime is a form of social maladjustment
Could result in crime
Homeless people live atypically and not appropriate in society
Crime and Deviance
Deviant Behaviour is human activity that violates social norms
Need norms for smooth running of society
Considered deviant when it violates social expectations
Norms also constitute how we look and dress
All crimes are considered deviant to at least some people at a particular point in time, but not all deviance would be considered crime
Who gets to decide what deviance is criminal
Power
Some forms of deviance are not criminal
Examples?
Farting in an elevator
Got in an elevator and faced everyone
Sexual practices
Singing on the bus
Some forms of crime and not seen as deviant
Smoking weed
Governing when stores can be open
Deviance (and crime) vary in time and space
Time and space?- era and country
Decriminalization of homosexuality in 1969
Prior to 1983 men couldn’t bee charged with raping their wife(although it was considered deviant)
Killing another persons could be seen as legal and socially acceptable-war (could be considered deviant if u did not)
Decriminalization: removal of criminal penalties without it officially being legalized
Prior to, 70% of Canadians supported decriminalization
Consensus perspective
Cove values exist ion society
Rape, murder, etc is bad
Laws reflect the collective will of the people
Laws serve all people equally
Those who violate the law represent a unique subgroup of the population
Those that break the law have something wrong with them
What are the problems and shortcomings of this perspective
What is a non violent perspective?
Do we all agree? Different perspectives
Laws to not serve everybody equally
Unique subgroups/sub population. Most people have committed something illegal in their life.
Multicultural canada: can we set up a shared sense of beliefs and values?
Pluralistic Perspective
Many diverse social groups exist within society
Each social group has its own characteristic set of values, beliefs, and interests
2005 Supreme Court of canada decided sex clubs and bathhouse were not deemed indecent
The legal system is a value neutral arbiter between competing interests
The legal system is concerned with the best interests of society
Conflict Perspective
Society is comprised of diverse social groups
Each group has different definitions if right and wrong
Conflict between groups is unavoidable
Group conflict centers on the exercise of political power
Law is a tool of the powerful
War on crime, war on drugs, legalizing/criminalizing abortion etc is a tool of the power
The powerful strive to keep their power
Week 2: Crime Statistics
Criminologists, Criminalists, Criminal Justice Professionals Criminologists:
Trained in the field of criminology
Work in the field and publish journals
Usually masters degrees and PHDs
Engage in data gathering and analysis
Social policy creating
Gathering and analyzing crime statistics
Studies crime, criminals, and criminal behaviour
Research is published in academic journals
Criminalist
Specialist in the collection and examination of the physical evidence
Forensic examiners, lab technician, crime scene technology
Advanced technological training
Usually work for police forces
Criminal justice professionals
Those who work day to day in (with) the criminal justice system
There are many people involved in the criminal justice system
Social policy
Government initiates, programs, or plans intended to address problems in society
Effects crime rates, the policy is more strict (not an increase in crime)
Criminality
A behavioural predisposition that disproportionately favours criminal activity
A certain behaviour increases/or decreases the likelihood of criminality
Criminogenic
A system, situation, or place that “causes” criminal behaviour
Does not “cause” crime (bad neighbourhood etc) but Is an added factor
Criminal behaviour
Human behaviour, both intentional and negligent, that violates criminal law
Theoretical Criminology
Theory
A series of interrelated propositions that describe a relationship between people and things
Theories gain explanatory power based on how well they hold up to testing
Theories are never proven-only gain more evidence to support it
Can be challenged, with need for revision
General theory
Seeks to explain all criminal conduct with a single overarching approach
Integrated theory
Incorporate multiple theoretical frameworks to explain criminal behaviour
Integrated theories may combine elements
Applied research
Uses scientific inquiry, with practical application in mind
Pure Research
Done for the purpose of enhancing scientific knowledge
Used to support applied research
Qualitative vs Quantitative
Two different approaches to sociological/criminological research
What’s the difference?
Quantitative research: produces measurable results that can be analyzed statistically and (hopefully) generalized to a larger population
Qualitative research: produced subjective results that are difficult to quantify but tell us more about the lived experiences, feelings, and thoughts of those who are engaging in crime or victims of crime
Data Collection Techniques
Collecting your own data
Surveys
Options are mutually exclusive/unique
Exhaustive, all options are provided
“Self-Report”
Interviews
Allows participants to expand and describe concepts
Case studies
in-depth investigation of particular cases/people/family
Provide high quality information about processes and how the evolve over time
Not intended to be generalizable
Ethnography
Go into the field and live and work with the group you’re interested in studying
Participant observation
Covert=they don’t know that they’re studying them
Secondary Analysis
Information is gathered by somebody else (i.e. survey from stats Canada)
Ethical (and practical) considerations in criminological research
What kinds of ethical (and practical) considerations must criminologists deal with when conducting research?
Laud Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Places
Tearoom a place gay people would meet to have public sex
Data collection
Participant observation
Systematic observation sheet
Human subjects must be informed if you’re doing research about them, as well if there’s any risks, and why they are doing it
Two contrasting themes
Social problems
Social responsibility
Sees individuals as fundamentally responsible for their own behaviour
Have a social responsibility to follow the rules
People in prison choose crime over law abiding behaviour
Primacy of sociology
Sociology is the primary perspective in which most criminological research is based
History of Crime Statistics
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
Laws that helped support the poor were immoral and we should let them die off
Crime, violence, and war
Andre-Michel Guerry (1804-1866)
Looking at how moral statistics varied across regions
Adolph Quetelet (1796-1864)
Hot weather induced interpersonal violence
Sources of crime statistics
Official sources of crime data
Uniform Crime Reporting System (UCR)
Crime Severity Index (CSI)
Judicial and correctional statistics
Unofficial sources of crime data
Victimisation surveys
Self-report survey
Week 2/3: Crime Statistics 2/Patterns of Crime
Problems with..
Uniform Crime Reporting System (UCR)
Sexual assault is the most under reported crime
Inconsistent crime report
Only crime that are reported are documented
Only counts the most serious crime of an incident
Number of instances, based on number of victims (5 men rape 1 women = 1 rape)
Victimisation Surveys?
Actual crime could be overreported-exaggerated
Recall bias=Bias in somebody's inability to recall events in the past
Possibly underreporting
No way to verify information
No information on victimless crime (drug use, white collar?)
Self-Report Surveys?
May not reveal some crime, even if its confidential
Social desirability bias-don't want to disclose things that portray them in a negative way
May commit so much crime they cannot recall all the crime they commit
Crime Rate?
_______ x 100,000 number of criminal activities x 100,000 = population
Police Reported Crime
Crime rate increased in 2021, slight increase at the end by 1% (after a 9% decrease in 2020)
Large increase in crime rate in the 1990s
2021 violent crime rates increased, while property crime decreased
1990's peak and then decline occurred in both Canada and the US
Race/ethnicity/gender
Homicide rates are 6% higher for indigenous people
Indigenous women are more likely for violent crime, but indigenous men are the most at risk
1/3 of victims were identified as "racialized"
Most homicide victims knew their killer
The Great American (&Cnd) Crime Rise and Fall?
The rise: Bennet et. Al (1996) and Currie (1998) debate
The decline
Many contributors
Canada
Crime in Canada and in the United States (Ouimet 1999)
4 crime; two countries; controls for regional variation and city size
The dark figure of crime-all the crime that goes under reported
Cultural hypothesis
Structuralist explanation
The US has higher crime rates for more serious crimes
Crime rates for less serious and more frequent crimes are comparable between the two countries
Excluding large cuties makes a big difference
2.38 CND excluding large cities, 3.91 including
3.62 US North excluding large cities; 29.56 including
5.43 US Central excluding large cities; 24.86 including
8.46 US South excluding large cities; 34.78
Conclusions
Differences between US and Canada are driven by large crime rates in American cities
Ghettos in the US are conducive to violence, I.e. poverty, drug sales, gang fights and guns
Homicide rates are higher in the Us than in Canada, period but...
"what makes U.S. crime rates appear much higher than Canadian ones can be attributed to a small number of states and cities that have extraordinary high crime rates" (389)
Residential segregation of the poor in these cities
Availability of firearms
Week 3: Patterns in Crime
Correlates of Crime
Correlation does not mean causation
Age, sex, gender, race/ethnicity, and social class
Static factors
Dynamic factors
Theory and Crime
Broad categories of criminological theories
Individual difference theories
Structural/process theories
Behaviour of criminal law
Age and Crime
Age is one of the strongest correlates of criminal behaviour
Criminal activity is associated more with youth than any other stage of life
Also more likely to be victims
Those between the ages of 15 and 24 years are 15 times more likely to be victims of crime than other groups
Sex and Crime
The strongest predictor of crime
Males account for 77% of adults accused of criminal offences
Males account for 90% of all homicide and 98% of all charges for sexual assault
Lower female criminality due to:
Biological differences
Cultural factors
Role expectations
Reluctance to arrest and prosecute women
There has been a rise in numbers of women charged with criminal activity. Why?
Ethnicity (race) and Crime
Statistics come from studies using incarcerated offenders or inmate profiles
Distorted picture, why?
Crime funnel
Aboriginal peoples are over-represented in Canada’s correctional facilities
Aboriginal people are more likely to be victims of violent offences
“A history of colonization, including residential schools, work camps and forced relocation, is recognized for having profoundly impacted Indigenous communities and families (Bombay et al. 2014; Bombay et al. 2011; Bombay et al. 2009; The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015). Indigenous peoples often experience social and institutional marginalization, discrimination, and various forms of trauma and violence—including intergenerational trauma and gender-based violence. As a result, many Indigenous peoples experience challenging social and economic circumstances (Arriagada et al. 2020; MMIWG 2019; Statistics Canada 2020b; The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015). These factors play a significant role in the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the criminal justice system and as victims of crime (Ontario Human Rights Commission 2003; House of Commons 2018).”
There is no simple relationship between race and crime
Any relationship that does exist is likely influenced by various factors
Lack of social opportunity
Discrimination
Selective reporting and surveillance of the police
Social class and crime
Prior to the 1960s
Self report surveys
Title etc. Al (1978) The Myth of Social Class and Crime
Braithwaite (1981) The Myth of Social Class and CRime Reconsidered
People from all social classes commit crimes
Sex based disparities in Pretrial Release Decisions and Outcomes
Why does pretrial matter?
Focal concerns perspective and female offenders
Evil women hypothesis
Age & race
Data and methods
Findings
Week 4: Victimology
The study of victimization. It includes not only the interaction between the victim and the offender but also the victim and the criminal justice system (police, courts). It includes the interaction between the victim and other institutions, such as the media
Also, the role victims play, if any, in criminal act
Are their factors for why this victim was victimized?
How is it related to criminology?
Criminology looks at crime in the aggregate- those who commit it and the reasons for their deviant behaviour
Victimology looks at the victims of crime, their potential role in the criminal act and the psychological and physical impact of the crime
Advocacy
Advocating for the rights of victims and protections
Studying the effect of victimization on the victims and their families
Theories
Wolfgang's (1957) victim precipitated criminal homicide
Victims of homicide can do things to lead to their own demise
In many cases the victim had a major role in the crime
Victim being the "aggressor" in the fight before ultimately dying, husband attacks wife and she defends herself
Women were more likely to be non victim-precipitated (less likely to have instigated an action that resulted in their death)
Gottfredson & Garofalo's (1978) lifestyle model
Dependent on their lifestyles
Certain lifestyles are more prone to victimization-partying, drinking, drug lifestyle etc.
The more active and social you are the more likely you are to be the victim of a crime
Cohen and Felson's (1979) routine activities theory
Answer basic question: "why is the crime rate increasing?"
Crime is a result of class based inequalities
Routine Activities Theory
One of the most common theories in victimization literature
Why have violent crime rates increased over the last decade when during the same period most indicators of well-being generally improved (ex. Unemployment dropped, medium family income increased)?
Daily Activities
They argue that structural changes in daily routine activities during this period influenced crime rates
A shift away from activities in the home to activities outside the home
Women moving into labour force and school (1970s), more leisure time away from home, and increase production of durables (increased consumerism)
More material possessions=more likely those possessions will be stolen
Crime has increased because there has been a convergence of three elements; motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of suitable guardians
Routine Activities Theory
A suitable target?
People (out and about) and property (cellphone, laptop, house)
Capable guardian?
People (spouse, friend) and other protections (locks, alarms, gun)
Something that protects you and your property
Must have a suitable target, and an absence of a capable guardian, and a motivated offender
Motivated offenders?
This they take for granted. They assume that motivated offenders exist.
"Society's Throwaways"
Donato Bilancia
Robert Lee Yates
Robert Hansen
Arthur Shawcross
Lorenzo Gilyard
William Suff
Maury Travis
Jack Unterweger
Joel Rifkin
Kendall Francois
Doug Clark
Walter Ellis
Dayton Leroy Rogers
Richard Cottingham
Robert Shulman
Gary Ridgway
Robert Pickton
All killed sex workers, prostitutes, and high risk people
Spree killer= kills 2 or more victims within a short period of time without a cooling off period
Mass murder=kills a large number of people usually in one place at one time
Serial killer= kills more than three people and usually resumes their normal life in between
Police Reported Hate Crime in Canada, 2020
What is a hate crime?
A criminal act motivated by hate
Violent or not violent
Can harm a single person or an entire community
Four offences listed as a hate crime in the Canadian Criminal Code
Advocating for genocide
Public incitement of hatred
Willful promotion of hatred
Mischief motivated by hate in relation to religious property
Expanded to include senior residents, education
Mischief=willfully destroying or damaging property, rendering property useless, interfering with the lawful use or enjoyment of property
Mischief in computer data= renders computer data useless or ineffective, interferes with the lawful use or enjoyment of computer data, destroying or damaging computer data
Data and methodological considerations when collecting data on hate crimes?
15 out of 20 of the biggest police forces invested resources into the enforcement and knowledge of hate crimes
Hate crimes are often underreported
What do you think?
After controlling for age, history of childhood abuse, history of homelessness, visible minority states, and marital statues, why might bisexuals still have higher rates of violent victimization?
Self-reported sexual assault in Canada, 2014
Who was at greater risk of sexual assault in Canada?
Poor menta health, women, single, indigenous, bisexual, homosexual, people with experiences with homelessness, childhood abuse
Who were the perpetrators?
One of the more underreported crimes
1 n 2o assaults are reported to the police (compared to 1in 3 for other types of crime)
Other interesting findings?
Caution should be exercised when interpreting the results and proposing solutions. Why?
Gender differences in rape reporting (Pino Meier 1999)
Why did I assign this reading?
Why does rape go unreported?
What about men?
Data and methods
findings
Midterm
Need to know names and dates from powerpoints
No names from textbook (thank god)
Lectures 70%, 30% textbook (concerning)
75 questions, multiple choice
In class-up to 3 hours
Must have pencil, student card
Week 5: Classical and Neoclassical Theories
Christopher Ackinson
Merchant
Elected member of parliament in the uk
Expelled 3 years later
Convicted of perjury
Sentenced to the pillory
Punishment
Norms
Formal and informal rules of conduct for membership in a group
Norms govern our society
We don't even always realise that norms are guiding our actions
They are expectations of conduct in particular situations and they regular human social behaviour
Norms vary according to how widely people accept them, how society enforces them, how it transmits them, and how much conformity they require
Three types of norms:
Folkways
Mores
Taboos
Folkways
INFORMAL rules for acceptable behaviour within a group
Not strictly enforced
Etiquette, manners, civil conduct, grooming, non verbal behaviours, etc
Urinal etiquette (don't go next to someone at the urinal)
How a professor is supposed to dress
Singing on a bus
Control over body
E.g. creature releases (emanations from the body, Goffman
They may be informal but can be VERY powerful
Mores
“Formal” rules of conduct within a group
These are taken much more seriously and are seen as essential to our core values. We insist on conformity to mores
These are usually codified, for example, in the Criminal Code of Canada
Theft, rape, murder
Taboo
A norm so strongly ingrained that even the thought of its violation brings us to convulsion
Cannibalism, incest, bestiality, infanticide, eating cats and dogs (domesticated animals), eating cow in India
Not always criminal acts
Story about soccer team whose plane crashed (1972), stranded in the Andes for 72 days
Had to resort to eating the dead to survive
Canada:
No charge for cannibalism
Still indictable under other offences
Two other Terms
Mala in se: crimes rooted n the core values inherent in our culture, deemed universal
Crimes that are thought to be wrong in themselves
Learned wrong through socialization (often as a child)
Mala prohibitum: crimes defined by current public opinion and social values, subject to change
Drug crimes - marijuana
Gay marriage???
Classical Criminology
Basis for the tenants of our current criminal justice system
Prior to the 1700s we are in a pre-scientific period
Viewed crime as a manifestation of personal failings and character
Supernatural forces making people be deviant or evil
Witch craze - Salem witch trials[f]
Deviance[g][h][i][j][k][l][m][n][o] = result of demonic forces
Postulates that people have free will
Rational and make choices
Those that deviate don't understand the costs of deviating
Women are not possessed by the devil, they are making the choice to not follow social norms
To reduce deviance, the punishment needs to be swift, certain, and able to deter others
Hammer of the Witches
One of the first mass produced texts
Explains how to identify a witch
Elements Any idea what these are elements of? Crime? Criminals? Humans?
People are hedonistic
engaged in the pursuit of pleasure; sensually self-indulgent
"a hedonistic existence of drink, drugs, and parties"
Individuals have free will
Able to follow, or violate norms
Society is based on a social contract
All agree to give up a little bit of our freedom to live in society
People are in agreement to obey the rules-to maintain order
Punishment is justified
Need some sort of punishment to counter this hedonistic side
But not so much punishment that it will lead to more crime
Greatest good for the greatest number
Utilitarian principle
Criminal Justice System in the Eighteenth century
Enforcement was unpredictable
Imprisonment was temporary
Judges have authority
Punishments were harsh and unpredictable
Burning at the stake, torture, murder, hanging, etc
High status can often get away with paying a fine
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1678)
Leviathan (1651)
Structure of society, man's natural state, and society exercising social control over its citizens
Maintain order in civil society
Leviathan = a metaphor for the state
A peace treaty for people to follow
Humans in a state of nature are engaged in a “war of all against all”
Humans “need” society in order to prevent them from deviating
Jean-Jacque Rousseau (1712-1778)
In their natural state humans are basically good
Contrast to Hobbes hedonistic perspective
Private property
Corrupted human nature
Creates inequality
Have something (ownership) that others don’t
Natural law
Certain laws people can deduce from reason
Rape, murder, and assault is wrong
Natural laws don't need to be codified
Positive law
Comes from history and experience
Past tells us what laws are necessary
Need to be codified
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)
Disturbed by the current state of criminal law in Europe, England, and colonial settlements
He objected to severe and barbaric punishments at the time
Proposed reforms to make criminal justice more logical and rational
Beccaria’s Principles
The role of the legislatures is to define the crimes and define punishments
Judges role is to determine guilt and if found guilty apply the punishment according to the law
Seriousness of crime should determine the seriousness of the offence
The purpose of punishment is to deter crime. Punishment should only be proportionate to the offence
Punishments are unjust when they exceed the severity needed
Excessive severity not only fails to deter crime but actually increases it
Punishments should be prompt
Punishments should be certain
“In order for punishment not to be, in every instance, an act of violence or one of many against a private citizen, it must be essentially public, prompt, necessary, the least possible in the given circumstances, proportionate to the crimes, dictated by the laws.” - Beccaria
Jeremy Betham (1748-1832)
Disguised by the state of the criminal justice system
Executions for crimes against property
Moral entrepreneur
MADD, anti-tobacco laws, anti-porn groups
Utilitarianism: the principle that all things should be organized to ensure the maximum happiness for the greatest number of people
Punishment should only be used by the state if failing to do so would cause more harm
Humans are hedonistic so laws still need to be swift, certain, and slightly greater than the pleasure received from the crime
X+1 unit of pain; where x is the pleasure derived from the crime
Victimless crimes should not be subject to criminal law
Neoclassical
A contemporary version of the classical criminology that emphasized deterrence and retribution with reduced emphasis on rehabilitation
Unlike traditional classical approaches
Mitigating factors
Past record
Differences in free will
Rational Choice Theories
Focuses on the way an offender makes the decision to offend
Routine activities theory
Lifestyles theory
Situational choice theory
Gender
Critique?
Deterrence Theory
General deterrence
Specific deterrence
The Purge? Slay
General Deterrence in Review
Little evidence to support
assume s that an offender is rational and weighs the costs and benefits
Many offenders are cut off from society
Our legal system is not effective
White collar crime
Specific deterrence in REview
Does specific deterrence deter crime?
Maybe…
alternatives : pain vs shame
Graeme Newman (1983)
John Braithwaite (1989)
Capital Punishment
Ronald Turpin and Arthur Lucas
Capital punishment in the US (31 States)
Alabama, Arizona; Arkansas; California, Colorado; Delaware; Florida; Georgia; Idaho; Indiana; Kansas; Kentucky; Louisiana; Mississippi; Missouri; Montana; Nevada; New Hampshire; North Carolina; Ohio; Oklahoma; Oregon; Pennsylvania; South Dakota; Tennessee; Texas; Utah Virginia; Washington and Wyoming.
Effective deterrent?
Following well-publicised executions
Comparative research
Overall, studies do not show capital punishment has a deterrent effect on crime. Murder is often a crime of passion and influenced by drugs and alcohol. Few murders are planned and rational.
Week 1: Introduction to Crime and Society
Criminology
An interdisciplinary profession built around the scientific study of crime and criminal behaviour, including their form, causes, legal aspects, prevention, and control
Interdisciplinary: touches on a wide range of academic disciplines=law, history, biology, philosophy, economics, etc
Capitalism breeds crime?
Causes: what decreases or increases the likelihood that someone will engage in criminal behaviour
People are not born criminal, but things can increase the likelihood
I.e. bad neighbourhood can help steer you towards a life of crime
Criminology can be broadly defined as the scientifc study of criminal behaviour, crime causation, crime prevention, and the punishment and/or rehabilitation of offenders.
Prevention: how can we prevent the crime from occuring.
How can we decrease the likelihood
Control: how can we establish control
The objective of criminology is the development of a body of general and verified principles of other types of knowledge regarding...law, crime, etc
White collar crimes: malpractice, insider trading, worker harm etc causes more harm than street crime
What is Crime?
Actions that violate the laws of the state- provincial, federal, etc
What is crime is a violation of the laws of the land
The state has the power and authority to make the law
Establishes social order
Crime is socially constructed
Crime can be defined in different was/ different perspectives:
Legalistic
Most familiar
It assumes that those who make yo the laws are powerful individuals
We vote them in, they make the laws and decide what is defined as law and crime
Focuses on street crime and not white collar crime
Crime cant be separate from the law
Their laws that we currently have, didn’t always exist
Changes with the values of society
Laws change slowly.
Political
Crime is built into the law, laws are made to create crime by political groups to label certain behaviours as illegal.
Those people could challenge their authority
Sociological
Crime is anti-social, deviant acts that need to be repressed to preserve the existing social order
Behaviour that violates the social order
Why are some harmful behaviour not criminal
Psychological
Crime is problem behaviour
Overly impulsive people
Behaviour that is atypical
Crime is a form of social maladjustment
Could result in crime
Homeless people live atypically and not appropriate in society
Crime and Deviance
Deviant Behaviour is human activity that violates social norms
Need norms for smooth running of society
Considered deviant when it violates social expectations
Norms also constitute how we look and dress
All crimes are considered deviant to at least some people at a particular point in time, but not all deviance would be considered crime
Who gets to decide what deviance is criminal
Power
Some forms of deviance are not criminal
Examples?
Farting in an elevator
Got in an elevator and faced everyone
Sexual practices
Singing on the bus
Some forms of crime and not seen as deviant
Smoking weed
Governing when stores can be open
Deviance (and crime) vary in time and space
Time and space?- era and country
Decriminalization of homosexuality in 1969
Prior to 1983 men couldn’t bee charged with raping their wife(although it was considered deviant)
Killing another persons could be seen as legal and socially acceptable-war (could be considered deviant if u did not)
Decriminalization: removal of criminal penalties without it officially being legalized
Prior to, 70% of Canadians supported decriminalization
Consensus perspective
Cove values exist ion society
Rape, murder, etc is bad
Laws reflect the collective will of the people
Laws serve all people equally
Those who violate the law represent a unique subgroup of the population
Those that break the law have something wrong with them
What are the problems and shortcomings of this perspective
What is a non violent perspective?
Do we all agree? Different perspectives
Laws to not serve everybody equally
Unique subgroups/sub population. Most people have committed something illegal in their life.
Multicultural canada: can we set up a shared sense of beliefs and values?
Pluralistic Perspective
Many diverse social groups exist within society
Each social group has its own characteristic set of values, beliefs, and interests
2005 Supreme Court of canada decided sex clubs and bathhouse were not deemed indecent
The legal system is a value neutral arbiter between competing interests
The legal system is concerned with the best interests of society
Conflict Perspective
Society is comprised of diverse social groups
Each group has different definitions if right and wrong
Conflict between groups is unavoidable
Group conflict centers on the exercise of political power
Law is a tool of the powerful
War on crime, war on drugs, legalizing/criminalizing abortion etc is a tool of the power
The powerful strive to keep their power
Week 2: Crime Statistics
Criminologists, Criminalists, Criminal Justice Professionals Criminologists:
Trained in the field of criminology
Work in the field and publish journals
Usually masters degrees and PHDs
Engage in data gathering and analysis
Social policy creating
Gathering and analyzing crime statistics
Studies crime, criminals, and criminal behaviour
Research is published in academic journals
Criminalist
Specialist in the collection and examination of the physical evidence
Forensic examiners, lab technician, crime scene technology
Advanced technological training
Usually work for police forces
Criminal justice professionals
Those who work day to day in (with) the criminal justice system
There are many people involved in the criminal justice system
Social policy
Government initiates, programs, or plans intended to address problems in society
Effects crime rates, the policy is more strict (not an increase in crime)
Criminality
A behavioural predisposition that disproportionately favours criminal activity
A certain behaviour increases/or decreases the likelihood of criminality
Criminogenic
A system, situation, or place that “causes” criminal behaviour
Does not “cause” crime (bad neighbourhood etc) but Is an added factor
Criminal behaviour
Human behaviour, both intentional and negligent, that violates criminal law
Theoretical Criminology
Theory
A series of interrelated propositions that describe a relationship between people and things
Theories gain explanatory power based on how well they hold up to testing
Theories are never proven-only gain more evidence to support it
Can be challenged, with need for revision
General theory
Seeks to explain all criminal conduct with a single overarching approach
Integrated theory
Incorporate multiple theoretical frameworks to explain criminal behaviour
Integrated theories may combine elements
Applied research
Uses scientific inquiry, with practical application in mind
Pure Research
Done for the purpose of enhancing scientific knowledge
Used to support applied research
Qualitative vs Quantitative
Two different approaches to sociological/criminological research
What’s the difference?
Quantitative research: produces measurable results that can be analyzed statistically and (hopefully) generalized to a larger population
Qualitative research: produced subjective results that are difficult to quantify but tell us more about the lived experiences, feelings, and thoughts of those who are engaging in crime or victims of crime
Data Collection Techniques
Collecting your own data
Surveys
Options are mutually exclusive/unique
Exhaustive, all options are provided
“Self-Report”
Interviews
Allows participants to expand and describe concepts
Case studies
in-depth investigation of particular cases/people/family
Provide high quality information about processes and how the evolve over time
Not intended to be generalizable
Ethnography
Go into the field and live and work with the group you’re interested in studying
Participant observation
Covert=they don’t know that they’re studying them
Secondary Analysis
Information is gathered by somebody else (i.e. survey from stats Canada)
Ethical (and practical) considerations in criminological research
What kinds of ethical (and practical) considerations must criminologists deal with when conducting research?
Laud Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Places
Tearoom a place gay people would meet to have public sex
Data collection
Participant observation
Systematic observation sheet
Human subjects must be informed if you’re doing research about them, as well if there’s any risks, and why they are doing it
Two contrasting themes
Social problems
Social responsibility
Sees individuals as fundamentally responsible for their own behaviour
Have a social responsibility to follow the rules
People in prison choose crime over law abiding behaviour
Primacy of sociology
Sociology is the primary perspective in which most criminological research is based
History of Crime Statistics
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
Laws that helped support the poor were immoral and we should let them die off
Crime, violence, and war
Andre-Michel Guerry (1804-1866)
Looking at how moral statistics varied across regions
Adolph Quetelet (1796-1864)
Hot weather induced interpersonal violence
Sources of crime statistics
Official sources of crime data
Uniform Crime Reporting System (UCR)
Crime Severity Index (CSI)
Judicial and correctional statistics
Unofficial sources of crime data
Victimisation surveys
Self-report survey
Week 2/3: Crime Statistics 2/Patterns of Crime
Problems with..
Uniform Crime Reporting System (UCR)
Sexual assault is the most under reported crime
Inconsistent crime report
Only crime that are reported are documented
Only counts the most serious crime of an incident
Number of instances, based on number of victims (5 men rape 1 women = 1 rape)
Victimisation Surveys?
Actual crime could be overreported-exaggerated
Recall bias=Bias in somebody's inability to recall events in the past
Possibly underreporting
No way to verify information
No information on victimless crime (drug use, white collar?)
Self-Report Surveys?
May not reveal some crime, even if its confidential
Social desirability bias-don't want to disclose things that portray them in a negative way
May commit so much crime they cannot recall all the crime they commit
Crime Rate?
_______ x 100,000 number of criminal activities x 100,000 = population
Police Reported Crime
Crime rate increased in 2021, slight increase at the end by 1% (after a 9% decrease in 2020)
Large increase in crime rate in the 1990s
2021 violent crime rates increased, while property crime decreased
1990's peak and then decline occurred in both Canada and the US
Race/ethnicity/gender
Homicide rates are 6% higher for indigenous people
Indigenous women are more likely for violent crime, but indigenous men are the most at risk
1/3 of victims were identified as "racialized"
Most homicide victims knew their killer
The Great American (&Cnd) Crime Rise and Fall?
The rise: Bennet et. Al (1996) and Currie (1998) debate
The decline
Many contributors
Canada
Crime in Canada and in the United States (Ouimet 1999)
4 crime; two countries; controls for regional variation and city size
The dark figure of crime-all the crime that goes under reported
Cultural hypothesis
Structuralist explanation
The US has higher crime rates for more serious crimes
Crime rates for less serious and more frequent crimes are comparable between the two countries
Excluding large cuties makes a big difference
2.38 CND excluding large cities, 3.91 including
3.62 US North excluding large cities; 29.56 including
5.43 US Central excluding large cities; 24.86 including
8.46 US South excluding large cities; 34.78
Conclusions
Differences between US and Canada are driven by large crime rates in American cities
Ghettos in the US are conducive to violence, I.e. poverty, drug sales, gang fights and guns
Homicide rates are higher in the Us than in Canada, period but...
"what makes U.S. crime rates appear much higher than Canadian ones can be attributed to a small number of states and cities that have extraordinary high crime rates" (389)
Residential segregation of the poor in these cities
Availability of firearms
Week 3: Patterns in Crime
Correlates of Crime
Correlation does not mean causation
Age, sex, gender, race/ethnicity, and social class
Static factors
Dynamic factors
Theory and Crime
Broad categories of criminological theories
Individual difference theories
Structural/process theories
Behaviour of criminal law
Age and Crime
Age is one of the strongest correlates of criminal behaviour
Criminal activity is associated more with youth than any other stage of life
Also more likely to be victims
Those between the ages of 15 and 24 years are 15 times more likely to be victims of crime than other groups
Sex and Crime
The strongest predictor of crime
Males account for 77% of adults accused of criminal offences
Males account for 90% of all homicide and 98% of all charges for sexual assault
Lower female criminality due to:
Biological differences
Cultural factors
Role expectations
Reluctance to arrest and prosecute women
There has been a rise in numbers of women charged with criminal activity. Why?
Ethnicity (race) and Crime
Statistics come from studies using incarcerated offenders or inmate profiles
Distorted picture, why?
Crime funnel
Aboriginal peoples are over-represented in Canada’s correctional facilities
Aboriginal people are more likely to be victims of violent offences
“A history of colonization, including residential schools, work camps and forced relocation, is recognized for having profoundly impacted Indigenous communities and families (Bombay et al. 2014; Bombay et al. 2011; Bombay et al. 2009; The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015). Indigenous peoples often experience social and institutional marginalization, discrimination, and various forms of trauma and violence—including intergenerational trauma and gender-based violence. As a result, many Indigenous peoples experience challenging social and economic circumstances (Arriagada et al. 2020; MMIWG 2019; Statistics Canada 2020b; The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015). These factors play a significant role in the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the criminal justice system and as victims of crime (Ontario Human Rights Commission 2003; House of Commons 2018).”
There is no simple relationship between race and crime
Any relationship that does exist is likely influenced by various factors
Lack of social opportunity
Discrimination
Selective reporting and surveillance of the police
Social class and crime
Prior to the 1960s
Self report surveys
Title etc. Al (1978) The Myth of Social Class and Crime
Braithwaite (1981) The Myth of Social Class and CRime Reconsidered
People from all social classes commit crimes
Sex based disparities in Pretrial Release Decisions and Outcomes
Why does pretrial matter?
Focal concerns perspective and female offenders
Evil women hypothesis
Age & race
Data and methods
Findings
Week 4: Victimology
The study of victimization. It includes not only the interaction between the victim and the offender but also the victim and the criminal justice system (police, courts). It includes the interaction between the victim and other institutions, such as the media
Also, the role victims play, if any, in criminal act
Are their factors for why this victim was victimized?
How is it related to criminology?
Criminology looks at crime in the aggregate- those who commit it and the reasons for their deviant behaviour
Victimology looks at the victims of crime, their potential role in the criminal act and the psychological and physical impact of the crime
Advocacy
Advocating for the rights of victims and protections
Studying the effect of victimization on the victims and their families
Theories
Wolfgang's (1957) victim precipitated criminal homicide
Victims of homicide can do things to lead to their own demise
In many cases the victim had a major role in the crime
Victim being the "aggressor" in the fight before ultimately dying, husband attacks wife and she defends herself
Women were more likely to be non victim-precipitated (less likely to have instigated an action that resulted in their death)
Gottfredson & Garofalo's (1978) lifestyle model
Dependent on their lifestyles
Certain lifestyles are more prone to victimization-partying, drinking, drug lifestyle etc.
The more active and social you are the more likely you are to be the victim of a crime
Cohen and Felson's (1979) routine activities theory
Answer basic question: "why is the crime rate increasing?"
Crime is a result of class based inequalities
Routine Activities Theory
One of the most common theories in victimization literature
Why have violent crime rates increased over the last decade when during the same period most indicators of well-being generally improved (ex. Unemployment dropped, medium family income increased)?
Daily Activities
They argue that structural changes in daily routine activities during this period influenced crime rates
A shift away from activities in the home to activities outside the home
Women moving into labour force and school (1970s), more leisure time away from home, and increase production of durables (increased consumerism)
More material possessions=more likely those possessions will be stolen
Crime has increased because there has been a convergence of three elements; motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of suitable guardians
Routine Activities Theory
A suitable target?
People (out and about) and property (cellphone, laptop, house)
Capable guardian?
People (spouse, friend) and other protections (locks, alarms, gun)
Something that protects you and your property
Must have a suitable target, and an absence of a capable guardian, and a motivated offender
Motivated offenders?
This they take for granted. They assume that motivated offenders exist.
"Society's Throwaways"
Donato Bilancia
Robert Lee Yates
Robert Hansen
Arthur Shawcross
Lorenzo Gilyard
William Suff
Maury Travis
Jack Unterweger
Joel Rifkin
Kendall Francois
Doug Clark
Walter Ellis
Dayton Leroy Rogers
Richard Cottingham
Robert Shulman
Gary Ridgway
Robert Pickton
All killed sex workers, prostitutes, and high risk people
Spree killer= kills 2 or more victims within a short period of time without a cooling off period
Mass murder=kills a large number of people usually in one place at one time
Serial killer= kills more than three people and usually resumes their normal life in between
Police Reported Hate Crime in Canada, 2020
What is a hate crime?
A criminal act motivated by hate
Violent or not violent
Can harm a single person or an entire community
Four offences listed as a hate crime in the Canadian Criminal Code
Advocating for genocide
Public incitement of hatred
Willful promotion of hatred
Mischief motivated by hate in relation to religious property
Expanded to include senior residents, education
Mischief=willfully destroying or damaging property, rendering property useless, interfering with the lawful use or enjoyment of property
Mischief in computer data= renders computer data useless or ineffective, interferes with the lawful use or enjoyment of computer data, destroying or damaging computer data
Data and methodological considerations when collecting data on hate crimes?
15 out of 20 of the biggest police forces invested resources into the enforcement and knowledge of hate crimes
Hate crimes are often underreported
What do you think?
After controlling for age, history of childhood abuse, history of homelessness, visible minority states, and marital statues, why might bisexuals still have higher rates of violent victimization?
Self-reported sexual assault in Canada, 2014
Who was at greater risk of sexual assault in Canada?
Poor menta health, women, single, indigenous, bisexual, homosexual, people with experiences with homelessness, childhood abuse
Who were the perpetrators?
One of the more underreported crimes
1 n 2o assaults are reported to the police (compared to 1in 3 for other types of crime)
Other interesting findings?
Caution should be exercised when interpreting the results and proposing solutions. Why?
Gender differences in rape reporting (Pino Meier 1999)
Why did I assign this reading?
Why does rape go unreported?
What about men?
Data and methods
findings
Midterm
Need to know names and dates from powerpoints
No names from textbook (thank god)
Lectures 70%, 30% textbook (concerning)
75 questions, multiple choice
In class-up to 3 hours
Must have pencil, student card
Week 5: Classical and Neoclassical Theories
Christopher Ackinson
Merchant
Elected member of parliament in the uk
Expelled 3 years later
Convicted of perjury
Sentenced to the pillory
Punishment
Norms
Formal and informal rules of conduct for membership in a group
Norms govern our society
We don't even always realise that norms are guiding our actions
They are expectations of conduct in particular situations and they regular human social behaviour
Norms vary according to how widely people accept them, how society enforces them, how it transmits them, and how much conformity they require
Three types of norms:
Folkways
Mores
Taboos
Folkways
INFORMAL rules for acceptable behaviour within a group
Not strictly enforced
Etiquette, manners, civil conduct, grooming, non verbal behaviours, etc
Urinal etiquette (don't go next to someone at the urinal)
How a professor is supposed to dress
Singing on a bus
Control over body
E.g. creature releases (emanations from the body, Goffman
They may be informal but can be VERY powerful
Mores
“Formal” rules of conduct within a group
These are taken much more seriously and are seen as essential to our core values. We insist on conformity to mores
These are usually codified, for example, in the Criminal Code of Canada
Theft, rape, murder
Taboo
A norm so strongly ingrained that even the thought of its violation brings us to convulsion
Cannibalism, incest, bestiality, infanticide, eating cats and dogs (domesticated animals), eating cow in India
Not always criminal acts
Story about soccer team whose plane crashed (1972), stranded in the Andes for 72 days
Had to resort to eating the dead to survive
Canada:
No charge for cannibalism
Still indictable under other offences
Two other Terms
Mala in se: crimes rooted n the core values inherent in our culture, deemed universal
Crimes that are thought to be wrong in themselves
Learned wrong through socialization (often as a child)
Mala prohibitum: crimes defined by current public opinion and social values, subject to change
Drug crimes - marijuana
Gay marriage???
Classical Criminology
Basis for the tenants of our current criminal justice system
Prior to the 1700s we are in a pre-scientific period
Viewed crime as a manifestation of personal failings and character
Supernatural forces making people be deviant or evil
Witch craze - Salem witch trials[f]
Deviance[g][h][i][j][k][l][m][n][o] = result of demonic forces
Postulates that people have free will
Rational and make choices
Those that deviate don't understand the costs of deviating
Women are not possessed by the devil, they are making the choice to not follow social norms
To reduce deviance, the punishment needs to be swift, certain, and able to deter others
Hammer of the Witches
One of the first mass produced texts
Explains how to identify a witch
Elements Any idea what these are elements of? Crime? Criminals? Humans?
People are hedonistic
engaged in the pursuit of pleasure; sensually self-indulgent
"a hedonistic existence of drink, drugs, and parties"
Individuals have free will
Able to follow, or violate norms
Society is based on a social contract
All agree to give up a little bit of our freedom to live in society
People are in agreement to obey the rules-to maintain order
Punishment is justified
Need some sort of punishment to counter this hedonistic side
But not so much punishment that it will lead to more crime
Greatest good for the greatest number
Utilitarian principle
Criminal Justice System in the Eighteenth century
Enforcement was unpredictable
Imprisonment was temporary
Judges have authority
Punishments were harsh and unpredictable
Burning at the stake, torture, murder, hanging, etc
High status can often get away with paying a fine
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1678)
Leviathan (1651)
Structure of society, man's natural state, and society exercising social control over its citizens
Maintain order in civil society
Leviathan = a metaphor for the state
A peace treaty for people to follow
Humans in a state of nature are engaged in a “war of all against all”
Humans “need” society in order to prevent them from deviating
Jean-Jacque Rousseau (1712-1778)
In their natural state humans are basically good
Contrast to Hobbes hedonistic perspective
Private property
Corrupted human nature
Creates inequality
Have something (ownership) that others don’t
Natural law
Certain laws people can deduce from reason
Rape, murder, and assault is wrong
Natural laws don't need to be codified
Positive law
Comes from history and experience
Past tells us what laws are necessary
Need to be codified
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)
Disturbed by the current state of criminal law in Europe, England, and colonial settlements
He objected to severe and barbaric punishments at the time
Proposed reforms to make criminal justice more logical and rational
Beccaria’s Principles
The role of the legislatures is to define the crimes and define punishments
Judges role is to determine guilt and if found guilty apply the punishment according to the law
Seriousness of crime should determine the seriousness of the offence
The purpose of punishment is to deter crime. Punishment should only be proportionate to the offence
Punishments are unjust when they exceed the severity needed
Excessive severity not only fails to deter crime but actually increases it
Punishments should be prompt
Punishments should be certain
“In order for punishment not to be, in every instance, an act of violence or one of many against a private citizen, it must be essentially public, prompt, necessary, the least possible in the given circumstances, proportionate to the crimes, dictated by the laws.” - Beccaria
Jeremy Betham (1748-1832)
Disguised by the state of the criminal justice system
Executions for crimes against property
Moral entrepreneur
MADD, anti-tobacco laws, anti-porn groups
Utilitarianism: the principle that all things should be organized to ensure the maximum happiness for the greatest number of people
Punishment should only be used by the state if failing to do so would cause more harm
Humans are hedonistic so laws still need to be swift, certain, and slightly greater than the pleasure received from the crime
X+1 unit of pain; where x is the pleasure derived from the crime
Victimless crimes should not be subject to criminal law
Neoclassical
A contemporary version of the classical criminology that emphasized deterrence and retribution with reduced emphasis on rehabilitation
Unlike traditional classical approaches
Mitigating factors
Past record
Differences in free will
Rational Choice Theories
Focuses on the way an offender makes the decision to offend
Routine activities theory
Lifestyles theory
Situational choice theory
Gender
Critique?
Deterrence Theory
General deterrence
Specific deterrence
The Purge? Slay
General Deterrence in Review
Little evidence to support
assume s that an offender is rational and weighs the costs and benefits
Many offenders are cut off from society
Our legal system is not effective
White collar crime
Specific deterrence in REview
Does specific deterrence deter crime?
Maybe…
alternatives : pain vs shame
Graeme Newman (1983)
John Braithwaite (1989)
Capital Punishment
Ronald Turpin and Arthur Lucas
Capital punishment in the US (31 States)
Alabama, Arizona; Arkansas; California, Colorado; Delaware; Florida; Georgia; Idaho; Indiana; Kansas; Kentucky; Louisiana; Mississippi; Missouri; Montana; Nevada; New Hampshire; North Carolina; Ohio; Oklahoma; Oregon; Pennsylvania; South Dakota; Tennessee; Texas; Utah Virginia; Washington and Wyoming.
Effective deterrent?
Following well-publicised executions
Comparative research
Overall, studies do not show capital punishment has a deterrent effect on crime. Murder is often a crime of passion and influenced by drugs and alcohol. Few murders are planned and rational.