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universality / gender bias / andocentrism / alpha bias / beta bias / cultural bias / ethocentrism / cultural relativism
Gender & Culture (AO1)
U___________
G_________
______________
A_______ & B_______
C____________
_______________
__________ ___________
universality
Gender (AO1)
____________ is the idea that there are a range of psychological characteristics of human beings that can be applied to all of us despite differences of experiences, upbringing, gender or cultural background.
gender bias / andocentric
Gender (AO1)
______________ is a misrepresentation of the gender differences and similarities between males and females. Psychology is argued to be ____________, having a biased view of psychology, taking a masculine perspective with male behaviour as "normal". This is due to psychology being historically conducted by men and on male samples.
Hare-Mustin + Marecek / alpha bias / beta bias
Gender - ___________________ (1988) (AO1)
____________ - exaggeration of gender differences
_____________ - minimisation of gender differences.
exaggeration
What word can be used to describe gender differences in alpha bias?
Gilligan / alpha / beta / care orientation / justice orientation
Gender - _______________ (1982) (AO3)
Kohlberg’s moral development theory has biased sample & the dilemmas used were biased
Had a male orientation because they were concerned with justice rather than being concerned with, eg hurting someone else’s feelings (a moral of care).
When tested women, he found that they were less morally developed than men – a classic outcome of ______ bias.
Original ________ bias meant that he now exaggerated the differences between men and women.
Their own theory and research showed that women favoured a __________________, whereas men favoured a _________________.
Their approach showed that men and women are different, but it was not biased because neither kind of moral reasoning was considered as ‘better’ - they are just different.
Rosenthal / less well / controlled / Eagly + Johnson / Eagly / training programmes
Gender - Biased Methodology (AO3)
______________ (1966) found that male experimenters are more pleasant, friendly and encouraging to female participants than to male participants. The result was that the male participants appeared to perform ___________ on the tasks assigned.
Feminists argue that lab experiments disadvantage women because findings created in the ________ world of the lab tell us very little about the experiences of women outside these settings.
EG a meta-analysis by _______________ (1990) noted that studies in real settings found women and men were judged as more similar in styles of leadership than in lab settings.
Previously, ________ (1978) claimed that women may be less effective leaders than men, but this knowledge should be used to develop suitable ___________________ and therefore create a future with more women as leaders.
minimisation
What word can be used to describe gender differences in beta bias?
cultural bias / ethnocentrism / cultural relativism
Culture (AO1)
_______________ - researchers judging other cultures from the researchers cultural perspective/values.
Due to ________________ when the researcher takes their own cultural behaviour as ‘normal’.
___________________ suggests behaviours can only be understood from the perspective of its cultural context
Berry / etic / emic
Culture (AO1)
Identified by _______ (1969), both types could cause cultural bias.
_______ research is when research based on one culture is generalised and applied to all cultures.
_______ research is based on studying a specific culture
Smith + Bond / European social psych textbook / 66% / 32% / 2%
Culture - Samples from Varied Cultural Groups: ________________ (1988) (AO3)
Surveyed research in one ______________________.
Found that ______ of the studies were American, ______ European and _______ came from the rest of the world.
Sears / 82% / undergrads / 51% / Henrich / 67% / 4000
Culture - Samples from Varied Cultural Groups (AO3)
___________ (1986) reported that ________ of research studies used ________ as the participants in psychology studies and _______ were psychology students.
____________ et al (2010) - a more recent study finding that ______ participants were American psychology students; calculate that a randomly selected American student was _________x more likely to be a participant in a psychology study than a random non-Westerner.
etic
Which type of research identified by Berry (1969) involves universality?
Gender - Feminism (AO1)
Re-examining the ‘facts’ about gender.
View of women as normal humans, not deficient men
Scepticism towards biological determinism
Research agenda focusing on women's concerns
A psychology for women, rather than a psychology of women
Gender - Biased Research Methods (AO3)
Institutional sexism
Men predominate at senior researcher level
Use of standardised procedures in research studies
Could create artificial differences or mask real ones
Ignoring that women/men might respond or be treated differently
Dissemination of research results
Publishing bias towards positive results - Research that finds gender differences are more likely to get published than that which doesn’t
Gender - Reversed Alpha Bias: Cornwell et al (2013) (AO3)
Girls outperform boys on reading tests, while boys score at least as well on maths and science tests as girls.
Boys who perform equally as well as girls on reading, maths and science tests are graded less favourably by their teachers, but this less favourable treatment essentially vanishes when non-cognitive skills (motivation, perseverance etc.) are taken into account.
Henrich / female / Buss / indigenous / opportunity samples
Gender & Culture (AO3)
____________ (2010)
Psychology is changing, with the increased prominence of ___________ psychology researchers such as Loftus and Ainsworth and the majority of studies now conducted controlling for gender. However a significant amount of influential historical studies such as Asch, Milgram and Zimbardo only contained male participants.
Some researchers are attempting to represent cultural differences in behaviour such as ________ including 37 cultures in his study on mate preferences. There is also an increase in _____________ psychology, with researchers from varying cultures investigating their own cultures.
The majority of research is likely to continue over-representing American college students in research due to the ease of obtaining _______________ in American universities.
Henrich / WEIRD / 68 / 96
Gender and culture in psychology (AO3)
___________ (2010) psychological findings are argued to be universal but are conducted on ________ participants. ______% of research subjects in a sample of hundreds of studies in leading psychology journals came from the United States, and _____% from Western industrialized nations.
Cochrane + Sashidharan / schizophrenia / 7 / Littlewood + Lipsedge / severe
Culture (AO3)
_______________ examined diagnosis rates of schizophrenia in the UK; suggested that there may be misconceptions about _______________ in Afro-Caribbean people among doctors (__x more likely to be diagnosed, with a same genetic predisposition).
_____________________ suggested that doctors were interpreting the symptoms in Afro-Caribbean people as being more _________.
interpretation / replicability
What are the difficulties of cross-cultural research?
Western / educated / industrialised / rich / democratic
What is a WEIRD participant?
opportunity sampling
Why is the majority of research likely to continue over-representing American college students?
biological / environmental / psychic / hard determinists / soft determinists / scientific emphasis
Free Will & Determinism (AO1)
Determinism is the idea behaviours are the result of internal and/or external forces that we have no control over.
Deterministic forces can be ____________ (such as genes, brain structure and neurochemistry) ____________ (such as conditioning, social learning and cultural) or ____________ (unconscious Freudian concepts such as the id and defence mechanisms)
_______________ suggest all events and behaviour can be completely described and predicted with no role for personal decision making. ________________ suggest there is still some role for conscious decision making as an expression of free will but behaviour is largely shaped by deterministic factors
Free will is the idea that our decisions and behaviours are a result of personal conscious decision making unconstrained by deterministic causal factors.
The ________________ on causal explanations depends on determinism. Using controlled conditions to demonstrate a causal relationship between the manipulation of independent variables and changes in the dependant variable
biological / environmental / psychic
What are the deterministic forces?
hard determinists
Who believes there is no role of free will?
face value / illusion / justice system / scientific / humanistic / concordance / EEG / Libet / fMRI / Haynes
Free Will & Determinism (AO3)
Free will has ______________, personal experience suggests we make our decisions and act after conscious thought. However, determinists argue this is an _________ and decisions are made before we are consciously aware of them.
Deterministic arguments for behaviour such as aggression has important implications for the ___________ __________, undermining the principle that the individual is fully accountable for their actions.
Psychologically deterministic theories also have implications for our understanding of correct child-rearing, provision of education, and blame for addiction.
____________ approaches to psychology are deterministic - behaviourist, biological, cognitive (soft); it is only a _____________ approach which supports free will, this approach also rejects the scientific process - suggesting free will is incompatible with science.
High ________________ rates in twins for disorders like schizophrenia indicate a less-than-100% causality, so potentially soft determinism, or multiple deterministic factors that have not been fully identified.
Neurological _______ research by __________ (1983) demonstrates brain regions decide to act before consciousness is aware of making the decision suggesting no free will. This has been backed up with _______ research by ___________ (2008).
James / all human action has cause but some manoeuvre room
In 1890, who put across the notion of soft determinism? What did he acknowledge?
readiness potential / 0.2s
Free Will & Determinism - Libet (AO3)
Aim: Investigate timing of conscious awareness in voluntary actions.
Method: Participants flexed wrist at will, noting intention and action times. EEG measured brain activity.
Findings: ___________________ (brain activity) preceded conscious awareness of intention by ______.
Suggestions: brain prepares for actions before conscious awareness, challenging traditional notion of free will.
motor cortex activity gradual buildup preceding voluntary movements
What is the readiness potential (investigated by Libet in EEG free will study)?
post hoc ergo propt / causation assumption by sequential events
What is a counter-argument of Libet’s EEG free will study that challenges the interpretation that the timing of conscious awareness indicates the true initiator of voluntary action? What is this?
hereditary / environmental / nativists / empiricists / tabula rasa / dichotomous / interactionist / diathesis stress models / epigenetics
The Nature-Nurture Debate (AO1)
The nature-nurture debate is what extent behaviour is determined by the influence of ____________ nature factors (genes) or ______________ nurture factors (experiences) and the relative importance / combination of both.
Nature: Philosophical ________ such as Descartes assume biological heredity (genes) is more important in determining behaviour, that much of knowledge is present from birth (innate)
Nurture: Philosophical ________ such as Locke assume learning/environment is more important in determining behaviour, as knowledge comes from interaction with the world. The mind starts as a blank slate or '___________'.
Most psychologists don't take a _____________ view (one or the other), but take an _____________ approach -suggesting behaviours are due to the combination and interaction of nature and nurture influences.
Interactionist processes include __________________________, that due to a genetic (nature) factor we are at risk/ predisposed to a disorder like schizophrenia, but environmental triggers must be present in order for it to develop. _____________ are genes that are not always activated at birth and only become expressed in response to a life experience.
Lerner / influences affecting foetus / social conditions we grow up in
The Nature-Nurture Debate (AO1)
In 1986, who proposed two levels of the environment?
What are prenatal factors?
What are postnatal factors?
dichotomy
What is the word for when a psychologist takes on a strict singular view?
interactionism
What is the word for when a psychologist takes on a combined-perspective view?
blank slate / nurture
What is ‘tabula rasa’ translated as? Where in the nature-nurture debate does it fit in?
philosophical nativists / Descartes
Who believes in the nature debate? Who is a good example of this?
philosophical empiricists / Locke
Who believes in the nurture debate? Who is a good example of this?
genetic / evolutionary / neurotransmitter / SLT / behaviourist / nature / MZ / DZ
The Nature-Nurture Debate (AO3)
Both nature and nurture perspectives are deterministic, they just differ in what factors they suggest control behaviour. Biological determinism for nature; environmental determinism for nurture with no role for free will.
Studies that show evidence for a biological (nature) origin of behaviour include ________ evidence for disorders like schizophrenia; ____________ arguments for mate preference; ________________ (dopamine/serotonin) evidence for aggression.
Studies that show evidence for an environmental (nurture) origin of behaviour include ________ experiments such as Bandura’s bobo-doll and ___________ studies on conditioning processes.
Twin studies support the influence of _______ as ______ twins often show higher concordance rates than ______ twins for behaviours and disorders despite both sets sharing similar environments.
IQ has 0.5 heritability across multiple studies w diff populations
In 1994, what did Plomin suggest?
reductionism / parsimony / genes / neurotransmitters / behaviourists / SR reinforcement mechanisms
_____________ (AO1)
Explaining behaviour in terms of its fundamental constituent explanations, this is based in the scientific principle of ____________, that simple explanations for phenomena (like behaviour) are preferable to unnecessary complexity.
Biological reductionists suggest the most important fundamental explanations for behaviour are physical biology such as the presence of ______ /_________________.
Environmental reductionists such as _____________ suggest the most important fundamental explanations for behaviour are simple __________________, with even complex behaviour being a series of S-R relationships.
holism / sociocultural / explanation levels
______________ (AO1)
Explaining behaviour using a range of variables across multiple levels including fundamental biological / environmental but also complex variables such how _________________ experiences influence behaviour.
_________________________ in psychology is the idea that behaviours can be explained from a lower / fundamental level (focusing on basic components) to explanations for behaviour including higher more complex explanations for behaviour.
isolating neurotransmitters / counter conditioning / humanistic / biomechanistic / cognitive / reductionist / falsifiability
Holism & Reductionism (AO3)
Reductionist approaches to mental health disorders have led to highly effective treatments such as ______________________ resulting in effective drug therapy (biological) and ______________________ (environmental) from identifying S/R.
_____________ psychologists such as Maslow & Rodgers argue humans cannot be reduced to simple ____________ processes. Holism appreciates interaction and the complexity of human experience that is in reductionism.
___________ psychologists are also reductionist in simplifying mental processes to simplistic theoretical models of information processing. They ignore the complexity of mental processes interacting with each other (and machine reductionist in comparing the human mind to a computer with the computer model)
Psychology is viewed more seriously as a science when it takes a _____________ approach in identifying fundamental variables, allowing for greater objective testability/_____________ using experimental techniques.
Reductionist approaches have allowed a more concrete understanding of the causes of human behaviour such as aggression, relationships and schizophrenia; however, explanations may lack validity due to lacking.
pragmatism / explanatory power
Holism & Reductionism - __________________ (AO3)
___________________ holds differently on different levels of explaining.
EG Microsoft Word through the terms of voltage flows.
non fundamental space time / reductionist framework
Holism & Reductionism - ____________________ (AO3)
Feynman diagrams and complex algebra in physics become insufficient in explaining some quantum phenomena such as reductionist approaches in psychology may similarly miss how mental states emerge from integrated, complex networks rather than individual neurons.
Positive geometries, which simplify complex algebra, are like psychological models that focus on system-wide properties.
Paradigm shift of ______________________ - psychological phenomena irreducible.
information theory / entropy
Holism & Reductionism - ____________________ (AO3)
Components - dissects data into bits; studying how neurotransmitters contribute to mental states parallels Shannon’s focus on how signals and noise affect data transmission in communication systems.
Emergent properties - individual neurons do not think or feel on their own, but when they work together in the brain, they produce thoughts, emotions and consciousness.
Interaction
Take into both component functions (e.g., visual cortex processing sight) and emergent properties (e.g., perception or insight).
Concept of ________ - accounts for accounting for both individual elements (neurotransmitters, brain structures) and overall systemic variability and stability.
supervenience / dependence / supervene / altering mental states / physical substrates
Holism & Reductionism - ____________________ (AO3)
Describes a relationship where one set of properties depends on, or is determined by, another set of properties, but without a straightforward reduction of one to the other. Often used to explain how mental states relate to physical brain states.
____________________ - mental states (like thoughts, emotions, or memories) are said to ______________ on physical brain states (change in mental states requires a change in brain states). However, the reverse isn’t necessarily true; brain states can change without necessarily ______________________ (like when neurons fire without leading to conscious awareness).
Offers a middle ground, recognizing that while mental states depend on the physical brain, they exhibit unique, emergent properties that are not entirely explainable by their ___________________.
Boly / fMRI / functional connectivity patterns / DOC / default mode, salience & executive networks
Holism & Reductionism - _________ et al (2007) (AO3)
Aimed to identify neural patterns associated with consciousness, questioning whether specific brain activations could predict conscious experience in a straightforward, reductionist way.
Used ________ to examine ________________________ across several cortical and subcortical brain regions. Participants included healthy controls as well as _______ patients with varying levels of consciousness.
Found that conscious awareness seemed to require interactions across multiple brain networks rather than activity in isolated brain regions. For instance, connectivity within the ________________________ were particularly crucial in healthy participants.
Wilber / fragmentation / 23% / 5-7% / 0.5%
Holism & Reductionism - ___________: Finding Radical Wholeness (AO3)
Argues that 10% population necessary to jump between the human development altitudes.
Transcendence and inclusion of other stages.
1st tier: Archaeic → magic → egoic → mythic → rational → pluralistic.
Rational gives modern cultures: reason, logic, mathematics, etc. Seen in history by the age of enlightenment.
Pluralistic operates on universal rational stage (eg maths & language being true universally). Looks at these systems and divides into multicultural differences (______________________).
Empirical research that ________ of the US population is pluralistic. Seen in popular culture as “wokeism”.
2nd tier: integral → mature integral
Combine multicultural fragments into unified, holistic worldwide systems.
About _________ world population here but only _________ at turquoise subdivision.
Substages of teal (paradigmatic - all various aspects of a discipline → single large paradigm) & turquoise (cross-paradigmatic).
scientific aim to discover simplest exp acc for most variation
Which epistemological claim supports reductionism?
ideographic
_____________ Approaches (A01)
This approach use qualitative techniques to study the individual in depth. Focus is on describing the uniqueness of the subject's personal experience, not providing general laws or theories of human behaviour that apply to all.
Research methods include case studies, unstructured interviews and observations.
Humanistic and psychodynamic psychology both use ideographic techniques.
Humanists see each individual as fundamentally unique, suggesting it is meaningless to produce general laws of behaviour.
Freud did produce laws of behaviour but created these from case studies such as little Hanz.
Other approaches use unusual case studies for theory generation (EG Clive Wearing, Phineas Gage, Tan)
ideographic case studies
What did Freud produce his laws of behaviour from?
humanistic
Which approaches in psychology have an ideographic view?
psychodynamic
Which approaches in psychology have an ideographic-nomothetic view?
nomothetic
____________ Approaches (AO1)
Uses quantative techniques to study populations, then using this data construct general testable theories/laws/classifications that apply to all. Scientific experimentation that is objective and controlled is the primary research method. Data produced is assessed with inferential statistics before it is accepted.
Biological, behaviourist and cognitive psychologists are seen as having this approach as they assume the same principles apply across all humans and have developed and tested their theories by replicable experimental techniques.
bio / behav / cog
Which approaches in psychology have a nomothetic view?
inferential statistics
In a nomothetic approach, what is data assesed with before it is accepted?
replication / superficial / ecological / extraneous / complementary
Nomothetic Approaches (AO3)
_______________: nomothetic techniques with clear procedures are replicable. Using statistical methods psychologists are able to generalise findings and predict future behaviour and create reliable treatments.
_____________: nomothetic criteria tested do not give a full picture of the individual. Two people with an OCD diagnosis are likely to have very different personal experiences even if they have the same gene in common.
Low ____________ validity; avoidance of _____________ variables due to being highly controlled.
______________: The strengths of both methods mean each is more appropriate in particular research circumstances. Using idiographic can give depth and description to established nomothetic laws of behaviour that provides high predictive value
nomothetic / ideographic
In which approach is data objective?
In which approach is data subjective?
hypothesis generation / subjectivity / complementary / ideographic / nomothetic
Ideographic Approaches (AO3)
__________________: idiographic case studies cannot demonstrate the validity of a hypothesis, due to the small sample. However unusual cases can generate new interesting areas of research, or overturn old incorrect theories.
______________: idiographic researcher's intensive data collection techniques such as longitudinal case-studies can result in the researcher losing objectivity and introducing bias into the interpretation of the data collected
___________________: the strengths of both methods mean each is more appropriate in particular research circumstances; using ______________ can give depth and description to established ______________ laws of behaviour that provides high predictive value
social sensitivity / ethical guidelines / cost-benefit analysis
Ethical Implications (AO1) - _______________
Sieber + Stanley (1988): ‘studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in research or the class of individuals represented by the research.’
The researcher has a duty to consider ethical implications and take steps to address them.
Following ________________ in protecting participants, such as offering counselling support and ensuring confidentiality.
Conducting a _______________ considering if the potential long term benefits of the research outweigh any short term costs.
Bowlby / cog / bio / evolutionary / reflexivity / under-represented
Ethical Implications (AO3)
Examples of a socially sensitive studies/theories in psychology are:
_________ - effects on working mothers
Diagnosis of mental health, do ___________ explanations blame the victim?
____________ theories on crime and aggression giving excuses to criminals?
____________ explanations for relationships, legitimising a gender double standard?
How researchers can deal with the implications is suggested by Sieder and Stanley, carefully choosing the research question, methodology, how the information is going to be used in the institutional context and interpreted by society. This is a process of ____________, the researcher carefully considering their own role, responsibilities and influential position.
Excessive concern over socially sensitive research can lead to researchers avoiding topics such as ethnicity, gender or sexuality, leading to these groups becoming __________________ in psychological research.
Not considering the public's response to socially sensitive research can lead to negative effects for psychology as a area for study. Research by Milgram, Zimbardo and Harlow damaged psychology's reputation, and this can lead to less funding.
DSM1 / sociopathic personality disorder / Kinsey report / Kitzinger + Coyle / heterosexual bias
Ethical Implications - Homosexuality (AO3)
In 1952, the _______ listed this as a ‘__________________’ but finally removed it in 1973.
Change credited to the _________ (1948) which was based on anonymous interviews with over 5000 men about their sexual behaviour, concluding that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour.
The report also included data on interviews with 6000 women and caused outrage at the time because these were topics that no one discussed.
__________________ (1995) note how research into relationships has been guilty of ______________ within which homosexual relationships were compared and judged against heterosexual norms.
Burt / twin studies / 2 imaginary research assistants / Joynson
Ethical Implications - Public Policy: _______ (1955) (AO3)
Influential in establishing the 11+ exam, a decision which arguably has a significant impact their later life opportunities.
The government at the time based its policies on this researcher’s _____________ which showed that intelligence was highly heritable and could be detected by age 11.
Discrepancies in his ‘data’ later revealed that much of it was fake, including ____________________, and he was publicly discredited (____________, 1989).
The 11+ however, and the idea that children should be separated on the basis of their ‘natural’ intelligence, remained for many years and still lingers.
research q / method / institutional context / interpretation & findings application / Seiber + Stanley
What are the 4 aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research? Who suggested this?
privacy / confidentiality / valid method / deception / informed consent / equitable treatment / scientific freedom / data ownership / values / risk-benefit ratio
According to Sieber + Stanley (1988), what are the 10 types of ethical issue that relate especially to socially sensitive research?
APA / 95% / 50% / scientific credibility to prevailing justice / BPS / press centre
Ethical Implications - Responsible Usage of Socially Sensitive Research (AO3)
Avoidance of conducting research. _______ (2001) reported that ethical committees approved _____ of non-sensitive proposals that didn’t include ethical problems whereas ‘sensitive’ proposals were only approved about _____ of the time.
Sieber + Stanley advised that ignoring such topics is not a responsible approach. Offer ‘______________________’.
One possibility is to follow qualitative researchers who are more upfront about their own biases and are reflexive in their approach .
_____ has a _____________ which aims to promote evidence-based psychological research to the media.
Burt, Kinsey / Joynson, Kitzinger + Coyle
Ethical Implications (AO3)
Who’s research can be used to positively evaluate this debate?
Who’s research can be used to negatively evaluate this debate?
object permanence / egocentrism, irreversibility & centration / operation / conservation & class inclusion tasks / hypothetical & deductive
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Intellectual Development Stages (AO1)
Sensorimotor (0-2 years) - learns about the world from first performing instinctual reflexes → intentional actions, starting to construct schemas; develops ____________________.
Preoperational (2-7 years) - starts to talk, however unable to use logic effectively so struggles with conservation & class inclusion tasks; develops _______________________ concepts.
Concrete operational (7-11 years) - can perform a mental set of logical thoughts, an ‘______________’, but only on objects/ events they can see; better performance at ___________________________; no longer show irreversibility & centration.
Formal operational (11+ years) - able to use abstract logic; capable of ________________________ reasoning.
child as scientist / disequilibrium / new info added to existing schema / existing schema adapted to fit new info
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (AO1)
____________________ - suggests that the development of cognition depends on a process of active discovery, this is the child performing actions on the world and developing schemas as result of these actions.
Schemas - packages of mental information/knowledge formed from experience. When we gain new information about the world that doesn't fit our existing schema we are in a state of __________________, this is unpleasant and in order to return to equilibrium we need to use techniques.
Assimilation - __________________________________.
Accommodation - ____________________________________ or new schemas formed.
mental process prog reorg from bio mat & environ exp
How did Piaget view cognitive development?
8m / sensorimotor
According to Piaget, when approximately does object permanence arise? Which stage does this occur in?
object permanence / conservation / egocentrism / irreversibility / centration / class inclusion / superordinate / subordinate
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Identification of Intellectual Development Stages by Cognitive Abilities (AO1)
__________________ - understanding an object still exists even when it is hidden from view.
________________ - understanding the quantity of an item/group is the same despite changes in appearance (e.g. closer).
________________ - the inability to imagine the world from another persons perspective.
________________ - does not understand that certain actions cannot be undone.
______________ - focus on certain parts of a task, do not see it as a whole.
____________________ - understanding that categories of objects have subsets. Eg big cats (________________ group) → tigers (________________ group).
educational / cog abilities
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (AO3)
Piaget's research has significant implications for ___________________ practice.
EG may be little use in role play before children are no longer egocentric, when to teach different aspects of mathematics is dependant on stage.
Evidence suggests Piaget may have underestimated childrens’ _____________________.
Much of the research in this area infers that lack of ability = lack of understanding.
It may be the children are simply unable to communicate effectively or misunderstand the nature of the tasks presented.
Piaget + Inhelder / 3 mountains / decentre / doll’s view
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Preoperational / Egocentrism: __________________ (1956)(AO3)
Sat children in front of a model of __________________, each was unique (snowy, with a cross, with a hut) and placed a doll on the opposite side.
Found children older than 7 could ‘____________’ and pick the correct image that showed the ____________, however younger children could not.
Piaget / taller & thinner / conservation
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Preoperational / Conservation - Beaker Conservation Task: ____________ (1965) (AO3)
Water was moved from one of two identical beakers to a __________________ beaker.
7 yo’s failed in ________________, saying there was now more water in the new beaker.
Bower + Wishart / 3m / turned off lights / IR camera
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Sensorimotor / Object Permanence: __________________ (1972) (AO3)
Possible confusion of lack of performance with lack of understanding - failure to search does not necessarily mean child did not understand that the toy still existed.
Found that even children as young as ________ may have object permanence. They _________________ and then observed the child with _____________. They found that infants continued reaching for objects in the dark, suggesting that they realise they’re there.
Suggests Piaget underestimates the abilities of very young children.
Piaget / blanket / 8m
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Sensorimotor / Object Permanence: ___________ (1963) (AO3)
Allowed children to play with a toy (a ball) which he then covered with a _____________.
Found children under _______ wouldn't search for the toy but children over this age would search for the toy.
Demonstrates the older children realised the ball still existed.
McGarrigle + Donaldson / 4-6 / naughty teddy / 72% / same no in each row
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Conservation: __________________ (1974) (AO3)
Deliberate transformation in the conservation task acted as a demand characteristic, demanding an alternative response to the second question (‘Are they the same?’).
Replicated experiment with counters with ________ yo’s and found most answered incorrectly but when a ‘______________’ accidentally knocked the counters so they were closer together. Younger children coped better because the change was ‘explained’ by naughty teddy’s
behaviour.
________ were able to say there were the ____________________. They were able to demonstrate conservation suggesting Piaget was wrong as it which age this skill emerges.
Hughes / 2 intersecting walls / 1 boy & 2 police officers / 90% / 3.5
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Egocentrism: ____________ (1975) (AO3)
Used a model with ______________________ and 3 dolls (___________________) and asked children to place the boy doll where police officer couldn’t see him.
Once familiar with the task, _______ of ________ year olds could do so.
Suggests Piaget underestimate the abilities of younger children and that they could cope with the task if if were more realiistic.
Howe / 9-12 / sliding down slope
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Schema: ________ et al (1992) (AO3)
Tested _________ year olds who all watched the motion of the same object ____________________. The children were then allowed to discuss what they had seen.
Despite all seeing the same motion, each child reported different details & understanding of the motion.
Sinclair-de-Zwart / non-conserver / absolute / comparative / single term / 90% / cog maturity prerequisite for ling dev
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Schema: _________________(1969) (AO3)
The ______________ group tended to use ____________ rather than _____________ terms (EG ‘big’ rather than ‘larger’). Also, they used a ______________ for different dimensions such as ‘small’ to mean ‘short’, ‘thin’ or ‘few’.
Suggests that cognitive and linguistic development are tied together. Children differed in terms of their language from ‘conservers’.
Further experimentation had appropriate verbal skills taught to this group.
_______ of these children were still unable to conserve.
Supports Piaget’s view that ____________________________, not the other way round (Vygotsky).
4d infants prefer schematic faces than same features jumbled / Piaget’s view infants born w innate schemas
What did Fantz (1961) suggest? What does this support?
2 Piaget / Piaget + Inhelder / Fantz / Sinclair-de-Zwart
Who’s research can be used to positively evaluate Piaget’s cognitive development theory?
Bower + Wishart / Hughes / McGarrigle + Donaldson
Who’s research can be used to negatively evaluate Piaget’s cognitive development theory?
child as apprentice / intermental / intramental / semiotics / external / egocentric / inner / higher mental functions / ZPD
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory (AO1)
_______________________ - suggests that the development of cognition depends on social interaction / culture; the child internalising the understanding of other people by using the tools of that culture eg language and technology.
Knowledge is first __________________ (between individuals) then ___________________ (within own mind)
Role of ____________: __________ speech → _____________ speech → _________ speech (thought), allowing _______________________.
_______
higher / elementary / conscious awareness / voluntary control / mediated / social in origin
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory - Differences that ____________ Mental Functions have (AO1)
Development from _________________ functions including attention, sensation, perception & memory through interaction within the sociocultural environment.
_____________________ - individual awareness of these processes.
_________________ - can be deliberately used and controlled.
____________ - involve the use of cultural tools or signs (like language).
_________________ - develop through social interaction.
ZPD / potential ability / scaffolding / supportive framework
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory - ________ (AO1)
Distance between what the child is currently able do independently and what the child can do with help from others (the child's ___________________).
Experts such as parents, teachers and older siblings help the child pass through this and move on to harder tasks.
Acheived by _______________, providing a _____________________________ to help the child complete the task, but slowly withdrawing support until the child can complete the task independently.
scaffolding / MKO / current understanding / can work unassisted
Label the ZPD Diagram (1 → 4)
recruitment / reducing degrees of freedom / direction maintenance / marking critical features / frustration control / demonstration
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory - Scaffolding Techniques: Wood + Bruner + Ross (1976) (AO3)
______________________ - ensuring that the student is interested in the task, and understands what is required of them.
______________________ - helping the student make sense of the material by eliminating irrelevant directions and thus reducing the “trial and error” aspect of learning.
______________________ - ensuring that the learner is on-task and interest is maintained; often by breaking the ultimate aim of the task into “sub-aims” which are more readily understood and achieved.
______________________ - highlighting relevant concepts or processes and pointing out errors.
_________________ - stopping students from “giving up” on the task.
_________________ - providing models for imitation or possible (partial solution).
Wood + Bruner + Ross
In 1976, who identified the 6 scaffolding techniques teachers can use?
concept dev / bio / maturational
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory (AO3)
Practical applications - suggesting an important role for 1:1 tuition in education, these ideas can also be applied by teachers in the classroom allowing children to play a more active role.
Cross cultural differences in ______________________, supports idea that cognitive development is due to social interactions; also means work is not culturally biased.
Child as an active participant in the development of their own cognitive abilities - Piaget's theory suggests the child is more passive, passing through ______ stages and gaining schema.
As the theory focuses on cognitive factors it fails to consider the biological and __________________ limitations that children face in picking up new tasks, EG young children are unable to use formal logic even with significant scaffolding.
Harmsen / discovery based learning / teacher input
Vygostsky’s Cognitive Development Theory - ________________ (2016) (AO3)
Suggested that ________________________ with considerable __________________ was most effective way of learning.
The input rather than the discovery was the most crucial element.
Wood + Middleton / 12 mothers / assemble 3D pyramid puzzle / scaffold instructions / contingent regulations
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory - _________________ (1975) (AO3)
Observed _____________ teaching their 3-4 yo children to _____________.
The most successful at teaching were those seen to ____________________, adapting up or down depending on the child's abilities.
Otherwise put, task mastery was related to __________________ - when a mother responded to her child’s failure by providing more explicit instructions (e.g. identifying what particular piece needs to be moved) and responded to success by providing less explicit instructions (e.g. just praising the strategy that has just been used).
Roazzi + Bryant / estimate sweet number in row
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory - _________________ (1988) (AO3)
4-5yo asked to ________________________ either alone or with an older child who gave prompts.
More accurate estimates with those working with a peer.
Savage-Rumbaugh / Kanzi / lexigram / symbol system / culture
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory - Non-Human Animal Study (AO3)
Some psychologists believe that non-human animals possess elementary mental functions which may be transformed into higher mental functions by immersing an animal in human culture.
EG _________________ (1991) exposed Bonobo apes (such as _______) to a language-rich culture – the apes are ‘spoken’ to all the time through the use of a __________.
It is debatable as to whether this ape could be said to have acquired human language, but he is able to communicate using a ___________.
This suggests that higher mental functions (as seen by how the ape communicated) can be transmitted through _________, thus providing further support for Vygotsky’s theory.
Carmichael / independent / interdependent / concept dev / kidney bean or canoe
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory - _________________ (1932) (AO3)
Vygotsky believed that language and thought are at first _______________, but become _______________. He suggested that the acquisition of a new word was the beginning of ___________________.
Showed participants a kidney-shaped drawing and told them either that it was a ____________________.
When participants were subsequently asked to draw the shape, it differed according to which label they had been given.
This shows that words can affect the way we think about and remember things.
Roazzi + Bryant / Wood + Middleton / Harmsen / Carmichael / Savage-Rumbaugh / Wood + Bruner + Ross
Who’s research can be used to positively evaluate Vygotsky’s cognitive development theory?
Sinclair-de-Zwart
Who’s research can be used to negatively evaluate Vygotsky’s cognitive development theory?
physical reasoning system / hard wired cognitive framework / VOE / impossible events / expectations
Baillargeon’s Early Infant Ability Explanation (AO1)
Infants have a ‘_______________________’ - an innate knowledge of the physical world. This ________________________ gives a basic understanding of physical principles, such as object persistance, gravity, and causality, helping infants navigate their environment, interact with objects and predict outcomes.
These early infant abilities are thought to be innate (present from birth) but also develop rapidly within the first year of life through experience and learning.
Used ________ research to test for this.
Infants (2 ½ months +) tend to look longer at events that violate their expectations (_____________________), such as objects appearing to defy gravity or passing through solid barriers.
Increased looking time interpreted as a sign of surprise or confusion, suggesting that infants have formed _________________ about how the physical world should behave based on their innate understanding of physical principles.
truck & ramp / habituation / impossible / object permanence
Baillargeon’s Early Infant Ability Explanation - ________________: Baillargeon (1987) (AO1)
Infants shown a toy truck rolling down a ramp (__________________ stage).
In the experimental (________________ stage), a box is placed on the track in the way of the truck (blocking); the box is then hidden by a screen. The truck appears on the other side.
In the possible condition, the screen was removed and a box was put on the side of the track (allowing the truck to move). The screen was put back, and again, the truck was allowed to roll down and appear on the other side.
Infants looked longer when the truck seemed to pass through the box (the box had been secretly removed).
Suggests that the infants were surprised by the violation of their expectation about solidity and they have ___________________ (as the box was hidden).
