Infancy and Toddlerhood

Infancy

0-18 months

Trust vs Mistrust

Crisis during Infancy

Hope

Virtue of Trust vs Mistrust

Toddler

18 months - 36 months

Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt

Crisis during Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt

Will

Virtue of Toddler

Over trusting and Gullible, unrealistic, and spoiled

Maladaptive tendency for infancy: Sensory Maladjustment

Never trust anyone, paranoid, neurotic, and depressive

Malignant Tendency: Widthrawal

Mother

Significant person

Shameless willfulness that leads to jump into things without proper consideration, reckless, inconsiderate

Maladaptive tendency for toddler: Impulsiveness

Perfectionism, Rule follower, anal, and constrained

Malignant Tendency: Compulsiveness

Early intervention

A systematic process of planning and providing therapeutic and educational services for families that need help in meeting infants’, toddlers’, and preschool children’s developmental needs.

Behaviorist Approach

Studies the basic mechanisms of learning. This approach are concerned with how behavior changes in response to experience

Classical conditioning

A person learns to make a reflex, or involuntary, response to a stimulus that originally did not bring about the response.

Operant conditioning

Focuses on the consequences of behaviors and how they affect the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

Psychometric Approach

Measures quantitative differences in abilities that make up intelligence by using that indicate or predict these abilities.

Intelligent behavior

Behavior that is goal oriented and adaptive to circumstances and conditions of life

IQ (intelligence quotient) tests

Psychometric tests that seek to measure intelligence by comparing a test-taker’s performance with standardized norms.

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development

Standardized test of infants’ and toddlers’ mental and motor development

Jean Piaget

Proponent of Cognitive development

Piagetian approach

Looks at changes, or stages, in the quality of cognitive functioning. It is concerned with how the mind structures its activities and adapts to the environment.

Sensorimotor

First of Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development

Substage 1: Use of Reflex

The first substage

Birth to 1 Month

Neonates practice their reflexes

Substage 2: Primary circular reactions

1 month - 4 Months

Babies learn to purposely repeat a pleasurable bodily sensation first achieved by chance.

Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions

4 to 8 months

Coincides with a new interest in manipulating objects and learning about their properties.

Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Schemes

8 to 12 months

They have built upon the few schemes they were born with

Their behavior is more intentional and purposeful and they can anticipate events

They have learned to generalize from past experiences to solve new problems

Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions

12 to 18 months

Babies begin to experiment to see what will happen

Substage 6: Mental Combinations

18 months - 2 years

A transition to the preoperational stage of early childhood

Representational ability

The ability to mentally represent objects and actions in memory, largely through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental pictures— frees toddlers from immediate experience.

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, typically developing in infants around 8 to 12 months.

Imitation

The ability to replicate behaviors or actions observed in others, which is crucial for learning during infancy and toddlerhood.

Deferred imitation

During the 18 months, this is piaget’s term of reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time.

Habituation

A type of learning in which repeated or continuous exposure to a stimulus reduces attention to that stimulus

Dishabituation

Increase in responsiveness after presentation of a new stimulus

Visual prefernece

Tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one sight than another

Self concept

Our image of ourselves; it describes what we know and feel about ourselves and guides our actions

Pretend play

An early indication of the ability to understand others mental states and their own Scapabilities, allowing children to engage in imaginative scenarios.

Socialization

Process by which children develop habits, skills, values, and motives that make them responsible and productive members of the society

Situational Compliance

Extra assistance provided by their parents’ reminder and prompts to complete the task

Committed Compliance

They were committed to following request and could do so without their parents direct intervention

Receptive Cooperation

Eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously with a parent, not only in disciplinary actions, but in variety of daily interactions.

Anal Retentive and Anal Expulsive

Fixation during this stage

Anal Retentive

Obsessed with orderliness and tidiness due to strict potty training

Anal expulsive

Very messy and disorganized adults due to lax potty training

Reflex Behavior

Automatic, innate response to stimulation which are controlled by the lower brain centers that govern involuntary processes

Primitive reflexes

Includes sucking, rooting, and the moro reflex are related to instictive needs for survival and protection or may support the early connection to the caregiver

Postural Reflex

Reactions to changes in position or balance

Locomotor reflex

Resemble voluntary movements that do not appear until months after the reflexes have disappeared

First 6-12 months

When does early reflexes disappear

Moro

Extend legs, arms, and fingers, arches back, draws back head

Darwinian (Grasping)

Make strong fist (gripping)

Tonic neck

Fencer Position

Babinski

Toes fan out; foot twist in

Rooting

Head turns, mouth opens, sucking begins

Walking

Steplike motions

Swimming

Swimming movements

First month

Infants can turn their head from side to side

Grasping reflex

Starts to coo and play with speech sounds

Second-Third Months

Babies can lift their heads

Can grasp moderate sized things and able to grasp one thing using right hand and transfer to their left hand

Hold their head still to find out whether the object is moving

Match the voice to faces

Distinguish female and male

Discriminate between faces of their own ethnic group

Size constancy

Develop to perceive that occluded objects are whole

Fourth month

Babies can keep their heads erect while being held or supported in a sitting position

Can roll-over, accidentally

Begin to reach objects and can start to babble, showing early verbal communication skills.

Sixth month

Babies cannot sit without support

Can start creeping or crawling

Could successfully reach for objects in the dark faster than they could do in light

They can now localize or detect sounds from their origins, recognizes sounds patterns and phonemes

Seventh Month

Pincer Grasps could already manifest

Can start standing

Can now sit independently

Start babbling

Can respond to their own name. They exhibit more coordination in hand movements and can transfer objects between hands.

Eight Month

Babies can assume sitting position without help

Infants can now learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a chair

Tenth Month

They can now stand alone

First word

Eleventh Month

Babies can let go and stand alone well

Single words

Thirteen month

Toddlers can now pull a toy attached to a string and use their hands and legs to climb stairs

Use a lot of social gestures

Eighteen to Twenty-Fourth Month

Toddlers can now walk quickly, run, and balance on their feet in a squatting position

Can now talk in two words continuously learning new words

Perceptual Constancy

Sensory stimulation is changing but perception of the physical world remains constant

Size Constancy

Recognition that an object remains the same even though the retinal image of the object changes as you move toward or away from the object

Shape constancy

An object remains the same shape even though its orientation changes as viewed from different angles.

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development

A developmental test designed to assess children from 1 month to 3½ years

Early Intervention

Systematic process of planning and providing therapeutic and educational services for families that need help in meeting infants’, toddlers.

Schemes

Actions or mental representations that can be performed on objects

Assimilation

Occurs when children use their existing schemes to deal with new information

Accommodation

Occurs when children adjust their schemes to take new information and experiences into account

Organization

Grouping of isolated behaviors into a higher-order system.

Disequilibrium

Cognitive conflict that arises when new information cannot be assimilated into existing schemes, prompting changes to those schemes.

Equilibration

Children shift from one stage of throught to the next

Representational Ability

The ability to mentally represent objects and actions in memory, largely through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental pictures.

Dual Representation Hypothesis

Proposal that children under age of 3 have difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representational because of the need to keep more than one mental representation in mind at the same time

Visual Recognition Memory

Ability that depends on the capacity to form and refer to mental representations

Cross-Modal Transfer

The ability to use information gained from one sense to guide another — as when a person negotiates a dark room by feeling for the location of familiar objects using touch to identify objects in the dark.

Receptive Vocabulary

Words that the child understand

Spoken vocabulary

Words the child expression/uses

Overextension

Tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning by going beyond the set of referents an adult would use (eg. “Dada'“ not only for her dad but also to other male strangers)

Underextension

Tendency to apply the word too narrowly; occurs when a children fail to use a word to name a relevant event or object

Telegraphic speech

The use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles (Momi give water)

Child-Directed speech

Language spoken with a higher-than-normal pitch, slower tempo, and exaggerated intonation, with simple words, and sentences

Recasting

Rephrasing something the child has said that might lack appropriate morphology

Expanding

Adding information to a child’s incomplete sentence

Labeling

Name objects that children can see or interact with, helping them associate words with their meanings.

Basic hunger, Angry, Pain, and Frustration Cry

Four patterns of crying of infants

Basic hunger cry

Rhythmic pattern that usually consist of cry, followed by a briefer silence

Angry cry

More excess air is forced through vocal cords

Pain cry

A sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding

Frustration Cry

Higher pitch an a more monotonic vocalization is associated with autonomic system activity during stressful procedures in infants

Social Smiling

Newborn infants gaze and smile at their parents; smile that occurs in response to external stimulus

2 months

Reflexive smile

A smile the does not occur in response to external stimuli and appear during the first month after birth

Anticipatory Smiling

Infants smile at an object then gaze at an adult while continuing to smile

Altruistic behavior

Acting out of concern with no expectation of reward towards others or for their benefit.

Mirror neurons

Underlie empathy and altruism