Unit 4- AP Psych

Attribution

the process of inferring why people or events behave the way they do

optimistic explanatory style

a habitual tendency to attribute negative events to external, unstable, and specific causes, and positive events to internal, stable, and global causes

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

External Locus of Control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

Social Comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

Dispositional Attribution

assuming that another's behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

the tendency to interpret and explain negative events as internally based and as a constant, stable quality

Self-Serving Bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

Mere Exposure Effect

The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it

Relative Deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

Stereotype

a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing.

Discriminatory Behavior

Behavior that makes a distinction in the way an individual treats someone or shows favor or prejudice against an individual or group of people

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

the assumption that out-group members are more similar to one another than in-group members are to one another

Belief Perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

Cognitive Load

Mental effort required to process information in your working memory

Implicit Attitudes

attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level

In-Group Bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Prejudiced Attitudes

negative feelings or beliefs about a group of people based on their membership in that group

Just-World Phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Ethnocentrism

a psychological phenomenon where individuals view their own culture as the center of the universe and judge other cultures based on their own norms and values

Cognitive Dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions

Social Norms

expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion

a theory explaining how people process persuasive messages and change their attitudes,

Halo Effect

a cognitive bias where an initial positive or negative impression of a person or thing influences how we perceive their other traits and qualities.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

Normative Social Influence (Social Influence Theory)

the phenomenon where someone changes their behavior to fit in with a group or gain acceptance, primarily motivated by the desire to be liked and avoid social rejection, rather than necessarily believing the group's opinion is correct; essentially conforming to social norms to maintain positive relationships within the group.

Central Route to Persuasion

the case in which people have both the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments presented

Foot-in-the-Door Technique to Persuasion

the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item

Obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

Multiculturalism

the idea that a society's different cultures should be valued and supported equally

Group Polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Door-in-the-Face Technique to Persuasion

ask for something large (essentially a farce,) then when denied ask for something that seems small in comparison (what you truly want)

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

Informational Social Influence (Social Influence Theory)

the phenomenon where individuals change their beliefs or behaviors to conform to others because they believe those others possess more accurate information

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Superordinate Goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Social Responsibility Norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

Social Facilitation

improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

Social Trap

a situation where individuals or groups make decisions that seem beneficial in the short-term but ultimately lead to negative consequences for the larger group, often by over-exploiting a shared resource due to prioritizing immediate gains over long-term sustainability; essentially, a conflict between personal benefit and the collective good.

Prosocial Behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Social Reciprocity Norm

a social rule that states people should respond to a positive action done towards them with a similar positive action, essentially meaning they should "return the favor" by repaying kindness or help received from others; it's a principle of mutual exchange where people feel obligated to give back what they have received.

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

False Consensus Effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Social Debt

a perceived obligation or sense of duty that individuals feel towards others as a result of social interactions

Bystander Effect

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

Psychodynamic Theory of Personality

An explanation of personality, based on the ideas of Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes unconscious forces and early childhood experiences.

Denial

refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

Rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Preconscious Mind

level of the mind in which information is available but not currently conscious

unconscious mind

level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness

Self-Actualizing Tendency

the human motive toward realizing our inner potential

Unconscious Processes

thoughts and feelings outside of our awareness

Displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

Reaction formation

Defense mechanism by which people behave in a way opposite to what their true but anxiety-provoking feelings would dictate.

sublimation

- Rechanneling of drives or impulses that are personally or socially unacceptable into activities that are constructive.

EX: Mom of son killed by drunk driver, president of MADD.

Humanistic Perspective/Psychology

focuses on the motivation of people to grow psychologically, the influence of interpersonal relationships on a person's self-concept, and the importance of choice and self-direction in striving to reach one's potential

Ego Defense Mechanisms

largely unconscious distortions of thoughts or perceptions that act to reduce anxiety

Projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Regression

defense mechanism where an individual reverts to earlier, more immature behaviors or patterns of thinking and coping

Projective Tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind

Unconditional (Positive) Regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

Social-Cognitive Theory

The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.

Self-Efficacy

An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

Big 5 Theory of Personality

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

Extraversion

a personality trait that describes someone who is outgoing, sociable, and energized by being around others

Personality Inventories

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Reciprocal Determinism

the theory that a person's behavior is influenced by and simultaneously influences both their personal factors (like thoughts and beliefs) and their environment, creating a continuous interaction between these three elements; essentially, one's actions can shape their environment, and their environment can then influence their behavior further, creating a cycle of influence.

Self-Esteem

how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself

Agreeableness

A personality dimension that describes someone who is good natured, cooperative, and trusting.

Conscientiousness

A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized

Factor Analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

Self-Concept

the individual's perception and understanding of their own identity, including their beliefs, attitudes, and values about themselves

Trait Theories of Personality

a theory that describes personality as a collection of traits, or stable patterns of behavior

openness

a personality trait that describes a person's willingness to try new things, explore new ideas, and embrace unfamiliar experiences.

Emotional Stability

the extent to which people feel secure and unworried and how likely they are to experience negative emotions under pressure

Drive-Reduction Theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Yerkes-Dodson Law

a psychological principle that states that performance improves with arousal, but only up to a certain point. It's also known as the inverted-U model of arousal

Extrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory

theory states that individuals experience psychological conflict when faced with choices, which can be categorized into three types: "approach-approach" (choosing between two desirable options), "avoidance-avoidance" (choosing between two undesirable options), and "approach-avoidance" (facing a single option with both positive and negative aspects); with the "avoidance-avoidance" conflict generally being considered the most difficult to resolve

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Pituitary Gland

a small gland at the base of the brain often called the "master gland" because it produces hormones that control the functions of many other glands throughout the body, significantly impacting various physiological processes that can influence behavior and mood, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction; essentially acting as a central regulator of hormonal activity within the body

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Self-Determination Theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

Incentive Theory

A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.

Approach-Approach Conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

Sensation Seeking Theory

A theory that proposes that one's level of need for varied or novel experiences is the basis of motivation

Leptin

a hormone produced by fat cells that plays a crucial role in regulating energy balance and appetite

External Factors Motivating Hunger

include environmental cues, such as smells, tastes, and portion sizes, as well as social and emotional factors

Arousal Theory (optimal arousal)

theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation (i.e. taking a class that challenges you because you would be bored in the regular class)