AQA Psychology Paper 2

define psychology

the scientific study of the mind and behavior

when did Wundt open the first laboratory dedicated to psychology?

1879

what is introspection?

• analyzing own thoughts and feelings

• break down thoughts and feelings to understand them

• describing experiences when presented with stimuli

How is introspection carried out?

• ppts (trained to effectively reflect) asked to listen to a metronome

• record conscious thought

• using standardized instructions

• ppts

What were the pros and cons of Wundts introspection?

PROS

• control, independent and dependent variables

• not philosophical

• paved the way for controlled techniques

• still used today in certain therapies

CONS

• doesn’t explain how the mind works - it is subjective

• accounts cant be confirmed impacting reliability

• results not easily replicable

• unconscious behavior cant be tested

what is reductionism?

The belief that things can be simplified into cause and effect and broken into small parts

who are the key theorists for the learning approaches?

• Pavlov

• Skinner

• Bandura

what are the key assumptions of the behaviorist theory?

• behavior learnt > inherited

• valid to study animals as same principles apply

• only observable behavior should be studied

explain classical conditioning

UCS → UCR

UCS + NS → UCR

CS → CR

• learning occurs through the paring of an NS and an unconditioned which produces an automatic response

• after several parings there is an association and an NS can produce the response alone

how did pavlov develop classical conditioning

• when dogs are given food they salivate

• Pavlov then each time the god was given food rang a bell

• this means that the bell was associated with the food

• after this repeatedly was done the food was taken out of the procedure

• when the bell was rang the dog would now salivate

what are the principles of classical conditioning?

• generalization - a similar stimuli will also trigger a response

• discrimination - when a similar stimuli does not produce the response

• extinction - when the response no longer occurs with the CS as no food is given

who developed operant conditioning and what ideas is it based on?

skinner 1938

• behaviour is based on learning by consequences

what is positive reinforcement?

behavior is more likely to continue due to positive consequence

what is negative reinforcement?

behavior is more likely to continue due to avoid negative consequence

what is punishment?

behavior is less likely to occur due to negative consequence

explain the Skinner box

• box that Skinner put a rat in

• time was recorded for how long it took the rat to find the level that dispensed food

• initially rat would accidentally press lever. the longer time spent in the box the more the rat understood how to get food (positive reinforcement)

• when the rat realized the level delivered an electric shock they stopped pressing the lever (punishment)

• when the rat realized that pulling the level would prevent the shock it kept doing it (negative reinforcement)

how did Skinner vary the frequency of reinforcement?

• continuous - reward every time

• variable ratio schedule - reward at intermittent intervals

what are the strengths of the behaviorist approach?

• scientific methods - controlled, replicable, observed behaviour

• practical applications - applied to rang of real-world behaviours = phobia treatment (systematic desensitisation)

what are the weaknesses of the behaviorist approach?

• use of animals - lack of validity, different brain structure, cannot be generalized

• lack of biology - emphasis on environment but evidence from twin studies shows genetic basis, incomplete approach

• deterministic - implies be have no conscious control over behavior (no free will)

Who developed SLT and when?

Bandura 1960s

what were Bandura’s beliefs about behaviour?

that people learn behaviour through observation of others and either reinforcement or punishment

what were the groups on the bobo doll study

72 children

2 experimental group and 1 control (24 each)

all had equal number of boys and girls

group 1 = exposed to aggressive

group 2 = exposed to non-aggressive

what was the procedure of the bobo doll study

• children were taken into a room alone and shown a person role model eather being aggressive or non-aggressive with the doll

• a second room was then used where the child could not touch any toys to raise aggression levels

• then child observed playing with toy

What were the findings of the bobo doll study

• children exposed to aggressive ode showed aggressive behavior and vise versa

• boys imitated same sex model more than girls

• boys more likely aggressive

• boys more physically aggressive and girls ore verbally aggressive

not only rewards influence behavior

what are the stages of SLT?

IDENTIFICATION

observer associates self with role model, want to be like them

MODELLING

leads to imitating of models behavior - more likely if positively reinforced

what are bandura’s mediational processes?

• attention = person must pay attention to model

• retention = behavior has to be remembered

• reproduction = observer must have ability to replicate behavior

• motivation = observer must want to replicate behavior

what are the strengths of SLT?

• supporting evidence = from controlled research, increase validity

• can account for cultural difference = low levels of aggression in the !kung people (south Africa) where parents don’t use physical punishment - credibility

• free will = shows mediational processes that are neglected by behaviourists

what are the weaknesses of SLT?

• unrealistic = lacks ecological validity, controlled lab setting, limits conclusions

• biology ignored = can’t explain gender differences, biology shows links between aggression and testosterone

What are the basic assumptions of the biological approach?

• everything psychological is biological first

• behavior originates from genes, nervous system and neurochemistry

• mind is within brain so behavior has a physical basis

what is the influence of genetics on behavior?

• genes influence behaviour

• behaviors has evolved through natural selection (survival of the fittest) where most desirable traits are passed on

  • aggression = fight or flight for safety

  • memory = help retain survival information

  • etc

what is the influence of our genotype on behavior?

• genetic makeup occurring at conception

• genetic code that predisposes how we develop as individuals

what is the influence of phenotype on behavior?

• characteristics in a person which are either…

  • expression of genotype

  • result of an interaction between our environment and genotype

what are the 4 categories that fall into genes determining our behavior?

• genetics

• genotype

• phenotype

• nervous system

how are twins used to study the influence of genetics on behavior?

non identical (dizygotic) = share 50% of genes

identical (mono zygotic) = share 100% of genes

concordance rates of OCD

MZ = 68%

DZ = 31%

What is a concordance rate ?

express the probability of a trait that is present in one twin being present in the other

how does the nervous system influence behavior?

neurons make up the brain and specific structures within it

neurons in the brain are what determine behavior therefor any physical damage to the brain will result in a change in behavior.

H.M 1953

what are neurotransmitters?

chemicals found in the brain that transmit impulses from one neuron to another. Psychologists believe that different levels of neurotransmitters influence behavior.

Eg low levels of serotonin are thought to be linked to OCD.

explain neurotransmission…

• impulses travel along axon

• impulses reach the end of it at the dendrites (the arms at the end of the cell)

• neurotransmitters are triggered to be released and travel across the synaptic cleft (gap between neurons).

• neurotransmitters are recycled between impulses.

• then reach the receptors at the other neuron and trigger the next electrical impulse.

what can cause a deficit of a neurotransmitter (eg serotonin) and what is a solution?

• neurotransmitters can be absorbed by enzymes causing a deficit and resulting in a change in behavior.

• can also be lacking at birth or used up due to trauma.

• can take medication to trigger production and prevent the neurotransmitter deficit.

What are the strengths of the biological approach?

• supporting evidence = twin studies, supports assumption that genetics are associated with behaviour due to positive correlation in concordance rate and genetic similarities

• practical applications = real-life applications of the approach, understanding of neurotransmission means there is effective drug therapies, provides support for the approach

what are the weaknesses of the biological approach?

• contradictory evidence = cordance rates in twin studies never 100%, not completely genetic, fails to acknowledge role of environment

• other problems = ethical issues trying to find basis for some behaviors, criminal gene may take away a persons accountability for crimes they commit, not always possible to apply approach

• determinism = sees human behavior and genetic and out of our control, no freewill

how do mental processes determine behaviour according to the cognitive approach?

Behaviour is determined by the way that we process information from our environment - how people perceive, store, manipulate and interpret information.

what are the basic assumptions of the cognitive approach?

• internal mental processes can be studied by making inferences about mind based on behavior

• thoughts processes can and should be studied scientifically, and well controlled lab experiments can aid us in this

• controlled lab settings can be used to investigate what an individual is thinking

what are inferences?

assumptions based off observable behavior about mental processes that can’t be directly studiedrch evidence

relies on going beyond immediate research evidence

what did Simon and Chabris do?

1999 invisible gorilla

example of studying internal mental processes

• applied the scientific method to make inferences about the internal thought processes that caused attention-based blindness, all by observing behaviour

calculated the percentage of people who had attention based blindness and made inferences

what are schema?

mental frameworks of expectations and beliefs that develop through experience and influence our cognitive processing. Tells us how to respond in certain situations. a ‘package of beleifs’ based on our prior experience

why are schemas useful?

• people able to predict what will happen in the world based on experiences

  • means we will respond appropriately

  • keeps us safe

• enable people to process information rapidly (mental short-cuts)

why aren’t schemas useful?

• can lead to negative interpretations of self or others

  • prejudices

• perceptual errors (eg misread/mishear song lyrics)

• implications for EWT and accurate recall

what is the information processing model?

A THEORETICAL MODEL - used to study internal mental processes

INPUT(environmental stimuli) → PROCESSING(info is coded) → OUTPUT(behavior shown)

• suggests information flows through the cognitive system in stages

• this can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing which can be studied.

Explain the multistore model of memory

EXAMPLE OF A THEORETICAL MODEL

stimuli triggers sensory memory.

When attention goes to this then the information is stored in STM

this is rehearsed in the STM

rehearsal of this information eventually takes it to LTM

this can then be retrieved to the STM

what are the information processing model and the multistory model of memory both examples of?

theoretical models

what are the similarities of the mind and computers in the cognitive approach?

core assumption of the cognitive approach - the mind can be compared to a computer

• process info

• coding

• input, process, output

• memory (storage)

what is cognitive neuroscience?

study of how brain structures influence mental processes

cognitive and biological processes can be combined to explain behavior.

advances in scanning methods have allowed this area of psychology to progress fast over the past 20 years.

what scans have helped the development of cognitive neuroscience?

• PET = radioactive substance injected into blood, sensors detect where flood flow is in the brain

• FMRI = measures changes in brain activity by looking at blood flow. active areas use more oxygen so there is an increase in blood flow

What are the applications of cognitive neuroscience?

• scanning/imaging techniques eg. to locate different areas of memory in the brain, mean there is now treatment for memory problems

• computer simulations can be used to test theories about mental processes like memory and attention.

What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?

• supporting evidence uses scientific and objective methods = lab experiments, high control, psychologists can be confident about inferences, reliable objective data, neuroscience means biology and psychology can come together, study of mind is a credible scientific discipline.

• practical applications = helped psychologists understand how we form impressions of people, used to inform CBT, input towards AI, has real-world applications

• less deterministic that other approaches = some conscious control over behaviour and how we think, can think before responding to a stimulus, accountability for peoples actions.

What are the weaknesses of the cognitive approach?

• research lacks validity = use of lab research is artificial, not representative of real life. means lacks external validity and cant be applied to everyday experiences, psychologists can only infer so can face results being abstract and potentially subjective

• reductionist (oversimplifies complex processes) = comparison with computer criticized, ignores the influence of emotion and motivation. complex processes are therefor simplified. eg. research shows impact of emotion on memory ie anxiety on ETW, not a complete approach.bh

what is the basis of the psychodynamic approach?

influence of childhood experiences on behaviour (with emphasis on sexuality on some parts of the theory)

when did freud live?

1856-1939

what is psychoanalysis therapy(developed by Freud)?

talking through early experiences and childhood occurrences and fears - helps bring repressed memories forward

addresses conflicts within the mind due to traumatic experience

what were freuds three basic assumptions?

1. unconscious mind drives our behavior

2. instincts motivate our behavior

3. early childhood influences our later behavior

what was freud’s beliefs about the role of the unconscious?

refers to the thoughts we have without any conscious awareness

drives behaviour

this is where traumatic memories are stored

what are the three levels of consciousness? (psychodynamic)

the conscious (thoughts and perception

the preconscious (memories and stored knowledge)

the unconscious (irrational wishes, fears, shameful experience)

what are freud’s three parts to the personality?

id = impulsive (demands satisfaction), in the unconscious (birth-18 months)

ego = conscious part of the mind, mediates between id and superego (realistic ways to satisfy both parts) (18 months and 3)

superego = found in the unconscious, morality principle and acts on rules and societal values in the unconscious, aims to control the ids impulses (age 3-6)

what are defence mechanisms?

• too much conflict between the id and superego can cause anxiety

• defense mechanisms are strategies use unconsciously to reduce anxiety

what are the three types of defense mechanisms?

repression = putting unpleasant thoughts into the unconscious

denial = refusal to accept the reality of the situation

displacement = expressing the strong emotions (eg. anger) on other neutral objects/persons

what is freud’s thinking behind the psychosexual stages?

stages of development that we go through from birth until age 18

too much pleasure at a stage can lead to fixation or lasting behaviors

trauma in a stage can also have this effect (fixation)

what are freud’s 5 psychosexual stages? and when is each developed

oral = 0-18months (pleasure through the mouth), influences people in habits such as nail biting and chewing

anal = 18months - 3years (pleasure through controlling feces), influences anal retentive - tidy and organised, or anal expulsive - messy, thoughtless

phallic = 3-6 years (pleasure through genitals, sexual feeling towards the opposite sex parent - Oedipus and Electra complexes), influences narcissistic personality or potential homosexuality

latent = 6 - 11years (sexual energy displaced and is a calm time in development), no impact on adult personality

genital = 12years+ (pleasure gained through genitals and will remain like this for life), influences difficulty forming heterosexual relations

how is the psychodynamic approach supported by case studies?

• Little Hans - phobia of horses was interpreted by Freud as an indication that he was in the phallic stage of development

• shows that there is evidence to support Freud’s theories.

however

• issues with generalising as CS is a small sample

• information about the hand was given by the father so it may have been misinterpreted/not representative of Hans’s true symptoms.

what are the practical applications of the psychodynamic approach?

• led to the development of psychotherapy

• involves helping patients bring repressed thought into the conscious to be dealt with

• shows that there are real world applications and that some of his methods were effective

what are the following weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?

cannot be tested

• ideas such as id ego and superego are abstract concepts that cannot be measured

• defence mechanisms are in the unconscious so cannot be directly studied.

too deterministic

• The idea shows that people’s behaviour in life will be the result of childhood trauma and that this is inevitable

• means that individuals do not have a choice in their behaviour.

Who developed the humanistic approach?

rogers and maslow 1950s

criticised the psychodynamic approach for its focus on unhealthy development and deterministic view.

what are the 4 basic assumptions of the humanistic approach?

1. every individual is unique so generalisations cant be made between people

2. everyone has free will

3. people should be viewed holistically

4. scientific methods should not be used to study behaviour as all people are different

What is self-actualisation?

• drive all individuals have to achieve their ultimate goal

• is this is achieved they feel ultimate satisfaction

• rogers and Maslow believed all people reach this goal differently

explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs…

1. self-actualisation (creativity)

2. esteem (self esteem and respect for others)

3. love/belong (friends and family

4. safety and security (shelter, employment)

5. physiological needs (food, water)

starting from 5 people must achieve each level to move to the next. all previous levels must be satisfied to read self actualisation

explain rogers focus on the self…

• proposed individuals have 3 selves

• in order to acheive self-actualisation they must integrate all three of them

• they also need congruence and conditions of worth

what are rogers 3 selves?

1. the self-concept - the way a person feels about themselves (low self-esteem = poor self-concept)

2. the ideal self - the self a person wishes for themself to be

3. the real self - the way the person actually is

what is congruence in rogers focus on the self?

• to achieve SA a person must be congruent (means the self-concept and the ideal self need to be the same or similar

• important part of getting to congruence is ‘unconditional positive regard’

  • when a person is loved for who they are by someone else

what are conditions of worth in rogers focus on the self?

• requirements that a person feels they need to be loved/feel worthy

• often these are boundaries set by parents

• if a person experiences this they are less likely to have ‘unconditional positive regard’, reducing the chance of self-actualisation.

explain the link between the humanistic approach and counselling in psychology…

• this approach has led to the development of counselling

• The client-therapist relationship is important and encourages unconditional positive regard

• allows client to be honest and reveal barriers to them being congruent

what are the 3 weaknesses of the humanistic approach?

cannot be tested scientifically

• the belief that using science to study human behaviour in inappropriate means that there is a lack of objective evidence to support the theory.

subjective

• The subjective experience of individuals is difficult to test. eg, measuring self-actualisation

• also means there is lack of scientific evidence to support the theory.

culturally biased

• theory has been criticised for only explaining behaviour in individualist cultures (where there is a focus on the self and personal development) ie. self-actualisation os only relevant in these cultures

• means there are limited explanations from the theory when it comes to collectivist cultures (focus on group and well being of others)

what are 2 strengths of the humanistic approach?

less deterministic than the psychodynamic approach

• allows for personal development and free will in behaviour

• means individuals have the power to change their futures

practical applications

• led to the development of counselling

• Elliot 2002 conducted meta-analysis of 86 studies and showed that humanistic therapy was more effective than no treatment

• shows that the approach has uses in the real world and leads to the improvement in a person’s life

What makes something a science ?

if it follows the scientific process

explain the scientific process diagram… (6 step)

1. observations

2. develop hypothesis

3. test hypothesis

4. analyse results

5. develop theory

6. repeat/modify and repeat

what are the 4 features of science?

1. theory construction and hypothesis testing

2. objectivity and the empirical method

3. replicability and falsifiability

4. paradigms and paradigm shifts

explain theory construction and hypothesis testing as a feature of science…

theory is an explanation for a phenomenon based on observations or empirical data (developed and modified through hypothesis testing)

hypothesis = testable statement making a specific prediction

What is objectivity and empirical method as a feature of science?

empirical evidence = gained through objective, real world experiments, observation and measurements.

objectivity = events and findings are not influenced by the individual experiencing them.

• high levels of objectivity increase confidence in the results regardless of who carried out the investigation - can be used to construct theories

what is replicability and falsifiability as a feature of science?

replicability = ability to check and verify the results of a study by repeating the method of the study to assess if similar findings are achieved

falsifiability = likelihood of the same results occurring twice or more, making sure they aren’t by chance. makes findings more reliable when they occur more than once (increases confidence in theory building)

What did Karl Popper (1902-1994) argue about falsifiability?

argued it was not possible to prove a theory, only to disprove it.

swans —>

if a scientist only ever saw white swans, develop a theory that all swans are white, but would only take one black swan to disprove that theory.

concluded that no amount of evidence can prove a theory to be right as one piece of evidence can prove a theory wrong. Therefore the null hypothesis of an experiment is tested to show if theory is incorrect - studies can only ever support a theory, not prove it

what are paradigms and paradigm shifts as a feature of science?

paradigms are a theory that is accepted by the majority of scientists in a field change over time as more evidence accumulated paradigm shifts

kuhn 1962 believed that science progresses in revolutions and called these revolutions paradigm shifts.

what are the three phases in science?

1. pre-science = variety of theories but not one generally accepted theory or paradigm

2. normal science = one theory (paradigm) remains dominant, despite occasional challenges

3. revolutionary science = disconfirming evidence accumulated until a theory/paradigm is overthrown, no longer maintained (paradigm shifts)

what are the two methods of analysis?

content analysis = statistical process that involves categorising and quantifying events and behaviour

• frequency and numerical coding of themes - finding categories or codes

thematic analysis = method to identify patterns of meanings and themes in data

• focus on finding recurrent themes in qualitative data.

What is coding and it’s importance in methods of analysis ?

• the process of placing data into categories

• potentially putting qualitative data into quantitative

• breaks down data into manageable categories for analysis

What are the 5 steps of content analysis?

1. get to know the data (repeated reading and viewing)

2. identify important categories

3. work carefully through the data (eg re-reading transcripts to make sure details are not overlooked)

4. count/tally the number of occurrences of each of the identified categories

5. check reliability by

   a) repeating content analysis (test-retest reliability)

   b) use second researcher to carry out content analysis on the same data independently (inter-rater reliability)

what are the two ways of checking reliability of findings?

1. test retest reliability - repeat content analysis on 1 or more occasions using same data set under same conditions, at different times

2. inter-rater reliability - use more than one researcher to carry out content analysis independently on same data.

in both cases compare results of the two analyses, calculate the correlation coefficient (+0.8 is generally accepted as indicating high levels of reliability)

What is the procedure for thematic analysis? (4 steps)

1. use coding initially to analyse data

2. review the data/codes looking for emergent themes

3. support for themes comes from direct quotes from the data

4. validity of themes is checked by collecting a new set of data

what is an emergent theme?

a theme a recurrent idea which is descriptive or qualitative

what are the strengths of content/thematic analysis?

• allow patterns in data to be analysed, and conclusions to be drawn

• can be replicated to improve validity

what are the weaknesses of content/thematic analysis?

• reducing data via coding can remove detail and reduce the richness of the data set

• subjective judgment is needed to define categories and coding units

  • opens up the possibility of researcher bias = looking for patterns or things to support a belief