Exam 2 HIST 1600

Caudillos

Military strongmen with political and economic control in post-independence Latin America.

What happened to capitalist industries in Latin America after independence?

Long, destructive wars led to the collapse of mining and plantation economies. Silver mines shut down due to high maintenance costs, and plantations were broken up as people sought small plots of land instead of working in large industries.

Why did new Latin American nations face debt and lack of credit after independence?

They had no local banks, and European banks refused to lend to them. With no silver exports to tax, governments lacked revenue and had to seek loans from European nations like Britain.

How did foreign competition affect Latin America’s economy after independence?

To attract investment, Latin American governments made unfavorable trade deals, allowing countries like Britain to flood markets with cheap textiles, undermining local production.

What was the result of independence on Latin America’s industrial sector?

The region de-industrialized due to destroyed industries and foreign competition. While this made some people happy to avoid factory work and stay on their land, it contributed to long-term poverty.

Important Caudillos

• Juan Manuel Rosas (Argentina)

• Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (Mexico)

• Jose Maria Oblando (Colombia)

• Jose Antonio Paez (Venezuela)

Federalists

A political faction advocating for power to states and a small central government. By the 1830s, many Federalists became liberals, and many Centralists became conservatives.

Centralists

Political faction supporting a strong, centralized government in the capitals.

What type of people supported centralist?

• The people who support the centralists are people with old money who benefited from the colonial period 

• They want a strong government and more order 

Liberals

Political ideology favoring small government, individual rights, and free trade.

Conservatives

Political ideology favoring strong government, collective rights, and some support for monarchy.

Important Note About Liberalism

• When we talk about liberalism, we talk about a political ideology that has the individual at the center of it, which has to think of free trade, property rights, and small governments, the opposite of today

Conservatives Vs. Liberals

Conservatives think of rights as collective things, and liberals think of them as individuals     

Problems with Nationalism

• No sense of nationalism right away.

• Borders were unstable and constantly shifting.

• Dangerous side of nationalism: defining who belongs and who doesn’t.

De-industrialization

Economic process where industrial capacity declines, often after opening markets to foreign imports.

Gran Colombia (1819-31): What was Gran Colombia and why did it break apart?

Gran Colombia included Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. It fell apart in 1830 after Simón Bolívar’s death due to geographic challenges (only one navigable river, no railroads) and divisions among elites over slavery.

Federal Republic of Central America (1823–1841):What led to the collapse of the Federal Republic of Central America?

Comprising Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, and Costa Rica, it fell due to intense conflict between liberals and conservatives—mirroring broader Latin American struggles.

Mexican Territorial Changes and Conflict (1836–1848): What were the major events that reshaped Mexico’s territory between 1836 and 1848?

Texan independence (1836), U.S.-Mexico War (1846–48), and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo led to Mexico losing a large portion of land, as slavery debates and U.S. expansionism fueled conflict.

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848): What was the significance of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo?

It ended the U.S.-Mexico War, gave the U.S. a third more land, and marked the first large-scale incorporation of Latinos into the U.S., offering them a choice to stay as Mexican nationals or become U.S. citizens.

What was the War of the Triple Alliance and how did it affect Brazil?

The War of the Triple Alliance (Paraguay vs. Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay), also called the Paraguayan War, forced Brazil to confront difficult national debates for the first time. In contrast, Brazil’s independence in 1822—declared peacefully by Prince Pedro—had little impact on the elite or enslaved population, with minimal fighting and no major disruption to capitalist industries. Brazil remained an empire from 1822 to 1889. Argentina and Uruguay entered the war against Paraguay in 1865, and it then became known as the "War of the Triple Alliance". Paraguay permanently lost its claims to lands amounting to almost 40% of its prewar claimed territories

Who were the rulers of Paraguay after independence, and what characterized their rule?

Paraguay was ruled by three authoritarian leaders:

• José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (1766–1840)

• Carlos Antonio López (1844–1862)

• Francisco Solano López (1862–1870), the last and most authoritarian, often seen as a "nepo baby" and empire-like ruler.
  Though officially a republic, Paraguay functioned like an empire. Its landlocked geography limited economic potential, and long-term authoritarianism eventually led to failure.

How was Uruguay involved in the War of the Triple Alliance, and what were its regional dynamics?

Wedged between Argentina and Brazil, Uruguay was heavily influenced by both. The war began in 1864 when Paraguay, under Solano López, invaded Brazil over a dispute involving Uruguay. Despite Brazil's unpreparedness, Paraguay had a strong, well-armed army with foreign-trained officers. Argentina refused to let López march through its territory and joined the war in 1865 after a Paraguayan invasion. Though authoritarian leadership helped Paraguay industrialize short term, democracy proved more sustainable long term. The border region of Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina was agriculturally rich and strategically important.

What were the outcomes of the War of the Triple Alliance for Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil?

• Paraguay: Suffered catastrophic losses—40–60% of its men population died, with major debt, reparations, and territorial losses. The war was sparked by fears of Uruguay aligning with Brazil.

• Argentina: Gained land and experienced political consolidation and an economic boom. The war boosted nationalism and pride with minimal investment (only 9% of soldiers were Argentine).

• Brazil: Faced a political crisis that led to mass emancipation and the fall of the empire. Though 90% of the troops were Brazilian, Paraguay nearly defeated them. Enslaved men were recruited, often gaining freedom by fighting. This contributed to slavery’s abolition in 1888 and the empire’s end in 1889.

Guano

Bird droppings used as a valuable fertilizer, central to the War of the Pacific.

 War of the Pacific (1879–1883)

• Chile vs. Peru and Bolivia.

• Conflict over guano (bird droppings = valuable fertilizer) and nitrate-rich lands.

• Bolivia taxed Chilean companies; Chile retaliated.

• British financial support helped Chile win.

• Result:

  • Chile gained nitrate- and copper-rich territory.

  • Peru and Bolivia lost land.

  • Bolivia lost access to the ocean, contributing to its modern-day poverty.

Characteristics of Liberal Republics

• Nations converged on the liberal republic model

• Technological modernization: railroads, industry

• Ideologies: Liberalism, Positivism, Progressivism

• Liberalism centered on:

  • Individual rights

  • Capitalism

  • Competition

  • Government-driven modernization

• Dominated by oligarchies (small groups of elites or families)

• Economic growth led to:

  • The term “millionaire” emerging

  • First time nations could finance massive buildings

Consequences of Capitalism

• Increased inequality:

  • Within nations: rich elites vs. poor workers

  • Among nations: industrial vs. resource-exporting countries

• Some became poorer (shift from subsistence to wage economy)

• Migration boom ("Golden Age of Migration")

  • Germans, Poles, Ukrainians, Middle Easterners to Latin America

  • Asians migrating as well for labor demand

Export-Oriented Economy in Latin America

• Raw Materials over Finished Goods

  • Agriculture: Cotton (Textiles), Bananas (nutrition), Coffee (Colombia/ Brazil)

  • Animal Products: Leather (military), meat (refrigerated trains/ships), belts (machinery)

  • Minerals/Fuels: Copper (electricity), Rubber (industrial use), Oil (Mexico, Venezuela)

Neocolonialism (1880-1930)

• Economic Liberalism without direct political control

• Informal colonization: nations politically independent, but economically dependent

• Dominated by corporations & foreign interests

• Navy power used to intimidate, not always invade ("Gunboat Diplomacy")

Gunboat Diplomacy

A form of diplomacy in which a powerful country uses the threat of military force, especially naval power, to intimidate a weaker country into giving favorable terms—often without actual invasion, just by parking warships in their ports.

Key U.S. Interventions

• Panama (1903):

  • Independence from Colombia supported by U.S.

  • In exchange: U.S. builds and controls Panama Canal (1904–1914)

    • get a 90 year lease

  • U.S. Navy deters Colombian resistance

• Other U.S. Interventions:

  • Puerto Rico and Cuba (1898)

  • Haiti (1915–1916)

  • Mexico (1914, 1916–17)

  • Nicaragua (1909, 1920s)

  • Dominican Republic (1916–1920s)

United Fruit Company

• Founded: 1899 (Boston)

• Dominated Central America and Caribbean

  • Owned land, built railroads, steamships

  • Controlled transportation, influenced government policy

• Marketed tourism with the “Great White Fleet” to go to caribbeans

• Created concept of “Banana Republics”

  • Corrupt dictatorships influenced by corporations

• Bananas:

  • Genetically identical, prone to disease

  • Popularized in U.S. through advertising

Panama

• 1903: Gained independence from Colombia with U.S. help

• Strategic due to Panama Canal

• Canal built 1904–1914 (shortest Atlantic–Pacific route)

• Canal requires ships to move up/down due to elevation differences

Dominican Republic Timeline

• 1822–1844: Haitian occupation

• 1844–1861: First Dominican Republic (independent)

• 1861–1865: Spanish recolonization

• 1865–1915: Second Republic

• 1916–1924: U.S. occupation

• Conservative elites supported Spanish recolonization

• U.S. supported Dominican independence but maintained economic dominance

Puerto Rico

• 1860s: Spanish colony

• 1868: Grito de Lares insurrection (coalition of federalists and formerly enslaved people)

• Known for high-altitude coffee production

Cuba

• 1868–1878: Ten Years’ War

  • Led by liberal urban elites, professionals, and formerly enslaved people

  • Aimed for independence and economic liberalism

• 1895: Second revolution led by José Martí

  • Raised international support but cautious of U.S. intentions

• 1898: USS Maine explosion → U.S. enters Spanish-American War

• Cuban Mambises (revolutionaries) in the 1860’s

What lead to populism?

• Great Depression

• 1919 global pandemic

• Collapse of liberal governments across Latin America

Populism Characteristics

• Economic and political centralization

  • Government controls key resources (e.g., Cárdenas nationalized oil in Mexico).

• Integration of political minorities and the working class

  • Leaders like Juan Domingo Perón and Evita Perón represented working people.

• Strong clientelistic relationships

  • Leaders promised direct benefits to supporters (e.g., land reforms).

  • Message: "Support me, and my policies will benefit you."

• Nationalist and anti-imperialist sentiment

  • Getúlio Vargas blamed U.S.-backed corporations for Brazil’s problems.

  • Cárdenas resisted U.S. corporate influence.

  • Jorge Eliécer Gaitán opposed U.S.-backed Colombian government (United Fruit Company).

  • APRA (American Popular Revolutionary Alliance) pushed for international anti-imperialism.

• Contradictory rhetoric

  • Leaders like Vargas used populist language but still faced popular dissent

Mexico – Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–1940)

• Revolutionary and populist president

• Major reforms:

  • Nationalized oil, railroads, and British-owned cotton haciendas

  • Land reform: redistributed land to peasants

  • Infrastructure: built roads, dams, cities in the desert

  • Dealt with mass unemployment after Great Depression

  • Responded to mass deportation of Mexican Americans from the U.S.

• Political moves:

  • Expanded voting rights (including women’s suffrage — implemented nationally later)

  • Created a centralized, dominant political party (PRI)

  • Not fully democratic

Brazil – Getúlio Vargas

• Rise to power: Came in via revolution (1930), supported by leftists and radical military

• Positions held:

  • Interim President: 1930–1934

  • Constitutional President: 1934–1937

  • Dictator (Estado Novo): 1937–1945

  • President again: 1951–1954

• Estado Novo (1930–1945):

  • Violent overthrow of the “Old Republic” (café com leite system)

  • Aimed to remake the Brazilian state, eliminating old coffee elite structure

  • Nationalist, centralized control of industry

• World War II stance:

  • Hesitant between Allies and Axis

  • Eventually joins Allies but overthrown post-war

• Final Years:

  • Returns as elected president

  • Faced press opposition, scandals, and impeachment threat

  • Commits suicide in 1954, turning death into a political statement

Argentina – Juan Perón

• Emerged during Concordancia military dictatorship (1930–43)

• Popular despite efforts to oust him

• Won 1946 election; formed own political party

• President: 1946–1955, 1973–1974

• Promoted Peronism: a blend of left and right-wing populism

• Emphasized “us vs. them” rhetoric

Eva Perón (Evita):

• Born working-class (1922); became radio/film star

• Married Perón in 1944; became politically active

• Instrumental in passing women’s suffrage law

• Died of ovarian cancer shortly after suffrage law passed; body was mummified

• Famous for her emotional and symbolic public speeches (e.g., “Announcement of Women’s Suffrage”)

Colombia – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán

• Left-leaning populist, excellent orator

• United Colombian left through rhetoric and policies

• Was favorite to win 1950 presidential election

• Assassinated during rally, leading to:

  • Bogotazo: massive riots in Bogotá

  • Riots spread across the country

  • Triggered a decade of violent conflict in Colombia

Peru – Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre

• Born 1895, student activist

• Founded APRA (American Popular Revolutionary Alliance)

  • Aimed for transnational populist movement

  • Progressive ideas: women’s rights, racial inclusion

  • Was never president but influential

  • Avoided rigid left/right dichotomy

Historical Context: Mexican Revolution Timeline

• Porfiriato (1876–1911): Liberal republic under Porfirio Díaz

• Revolution (1911–1920): First major uprising against liberalism in Latin America

• Moderate rule (1920–1934): Limited reforms

• Populist Era (1934–1940): Under Cárdenas

Themes of the Populism Era

• Clientelism vs. Democracy: transactional politics vs. institutionalized systems

• Nationalization: How state took control over private/foreign assets

• Contradictions of Populism: left/right blend, promises to all, elite ties

• Role of Women: Evita Perón & women’s suffrage efforts

• Revolution to Populism: Movement from radical revolutions to state-led populism

• Cold War Repercussions: Leftist populists categorized and suppressed

Cold War Context in Latin America

• Geopolitical Rivalry: US vs. USSR

• Foreign Intervention: US and USSR influenced Latin American politics, economies, and military

• Excuse for Intervention: Cold War used as a justification for interventions (e.g., U.S. invade Vietnam, USSR invade Afghanistan)

• Violence & Hot Wars: Civil wars, coups, overthrows

• Destruction of Democracy: Rise of dictatorship; by 1970, few democracies left

  • Remaining: Colombia, Venezuela (two-party), and Mexico (one-party)

• Democracy in the 1950s: Rising across Latin America until disrupted by Cold War politics

Jorge Ubico

• Became dictator in 1931 after the fall of an oligarchic liberal republic

• Overthrown in a coup known as the October Revolution in 1944

• During his rule, the Guatemalan economy remained under the control of coffee elites and the United Fruit Company

Guatemala: United Fruit Company

• Owned a large amount of land throughout Guatemala

• Bought land—including unused land—to prevent others from starting plantations

• Contributed to widespread hunger, with hundreds of thousands of people going hungry

Juan Jose Arrevalo

• Elected president in Guatemala in1945 

• Centrist populist reformer 

• Takes money from the food company and gives it to the people 

Who was Jacobo Árbenz, and why was his presidency significant in Guatemala?

• Elected president in 1951

• Continued and expanded Arévalo's reforms, including land redistribution

• Came from a privileged background (son of a coffee elite, military officer)

• Formed a broad coalition of political parties

• Faced opposition from elites who labeled him a communist to get U.S. intervention

• Overthrown in 1954 by a violent coup led by Castillo Armas, with U.S. support

• U.S. CIA and State Department involved:

  • John Foster Dulles (Secretary of State)

  • Allen Dulles (CIA Director)

  • Both had ties to the United Fruit Company

Who was Carlos Castillo Armas and what role did he play in Guatemalan history?

• Military officer and colonel in the Guatemalan army

• Trained a small army in Honduras with CIA support

• Led a U.S.-backed coup in 1954, overthrowing Jacobo Árbenz

• Became dictator of Guatemala

• Marked the start of right-wing coups replacing democratic leaders in Latin America

• Latin Americans became more afraid of losing democracy than of communism

• Attempted to buy U.S. weapons, ended up buying from Czechoslovakia (USSR ally)

• Civilians were shot by helicopters during conflict

• Stepped down due to violence against civilians

• Assassinated in 1957 by his own bodyguard

• His rule contributed to a chain of events leading to genocide in the 1980s

1954 US-Backed Coup

• Fear of Communism: Arbenz labeled as a communist

• US Involvement:

  • John Foster Dulles (Secretary of State) & Allen Dulles (CIA): Both had ties to United Fruit

  • Supported Carlos Castillo Armas, trained soldiers in Honduras with CIA help

  • Armas overthrew Arbenz and became dictator (1954–1957)

• Aftermath:

  • Violence, radicalization, anti-US sentiment

  • Civil War (1960–1996): Government outlawed opposition (e.g., PGT), fueled guerrilla warfare

  • Genocide in the 1980s

Guatemala Consequences of the coup

• Radicalization 

• Escalating violence 

• Long civil war 

• anti-US sentiment 

Fulgencio Batista

• De facto leader (1934–40), President (1940–44), Dictator (1952–59)

• Corrupt, favored elites, opposed by student movements

• Strong man going to dominate the politics of cuba for more than two decades 

What happened on July 26, 1953, in Cuba?

• Former student activists launched an attack on Cuban army barracks

• Goal: steal weapons and spark an uprising

• Attack failed; attackers captured and put on trial by Batista

• This became known as the July 26th Movement

Why did Batista's response to the July 26th attack backfire?

• Tried to make an example of the rebels with a public show trial

• Gave them a platform to spread their message

• Fidel Castro, a lawyer and leader, gained national attention through speeches

• “History will absolve me” speech became famous

What happened to Fidel Castro and his allies after the failed 1953 attack?

• Castro and others were exiled from Cuba

• Relocated to Mexico City to organize a revolution

• Met Che Guevara, who became a key figure in the revolution

How did Fidel Castro and his revolutionaries plan their return to Cuba?

• Publicly prepared for an invasion—Cuban army knew they were coming

• Used radio and pamphlet propaganda to spread their message

• Many revolutionaries were captured or killed in the initial landing

What were the challenges faced by Castro's revolutionaries?

• Poorly armed: only 1 in 10 had a modern rifle

• Relied on mimeographs and printing presses for propaganda

• Faced a well-equipped modern army, but had strong ideals and public support

What role did women play in the Cuban Revolution?

• Helped in raising money, distributing propaganda, and organizing in cities

• Played a vital support role behind the scenes

How did Fidel Castro portray himself in the early stages of the revolution?

• Did not identify as a communist early on

• Spoke positively about the U.S., Abraham Lincoln, and George Washington

• Gained support from a variety of people within and outside Cuba

How did Batista’s rule come to an end?

• By late 1958, Batista couldn’t maintain power

• January 1959, Batista fled the country

• Led to a power struggle that Fidel Castro gradually won

What happened during Castro’s consolidation of power in 1960-1961, and how did it affect U.S.-Cuba relations?

• In 1960, Castro displaced all other factions from the government

• Still had not declared himself a communist—U.S. continued attempting diplomacy

• By January 1961, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations and closed its embassy in Havana

• U.S.-Cuba tensions worsened throughout 1960

• CIA trained exiles in Honduras to invade Cuba (similar to 1953 plans)

• Transition from Eisenhower to JFK marked a generational shift

• Though JFK did not approve the invasion, it still went forward (leading to the Bay of Pigs)

What happened during the Bay of Pigs invasion in April 1961, and what were its effects?

• U.S.-backed Cuban exiles invaded Cuba, expecting U.S. Air Force support

• JFK refused to authorize air support, leading to the invasion’s failure

• Many rebels were killed or captured

• Strengthened Castro’s popularity within Cuba

• Made U.S.-Cuba relations irreparable

• Reinforced the Domino Theory as a central Cold War foreign policy idea

What happened during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, and why was it significant?

• Closest the world came to nuclear war during the Cold War

• U.S. U-2 spy planes discovered Soviet nuclear missile installations in Cuba

• Soviets were already building and placing operational missiles

• Some U.S. leaders wanted to invade Cuba, unaware of the full threat

• President Kennedy, advised by Bobby Kennedy, chose to wait and negotiate

• Avoided invasion and resolved the crisis peacefully

Shock Doctrine

Using crises to implement neoliberal reforms when populations are too disoriented to resist.

What are FSLN and FMLN?

• FSLN (Sandinistas): Leftist revolutionary group in Nicaragua

• FMLN: Guerrilla organization in El Salvador, later a political party

What is the Domino Theory?

•  US belief that communism would spread country by country

Anti-US Sentiment and Latin American Radicalization

• Reaction to US interventions (e.g., in Guatemala and Cuba)

• Nixon’s Latin America tour met with protests (Brazil, Argentina, Peru)

• Latin Americans focused more on democracy than communism

• Seen in cultural responses (e.g., Diego Rivera’s Gloriosa Victoria, 1954)

General Theme in Latin America in the 1960s-80s

• Rise of military dictatorships throughout Latin America in response to:

  • Backlash against popular mobilization in the 1960s–70s.

  • Fear of communism after the Cuban Revolution.

  • Latin American elites and the U.S. preferred right-wing dictatorships to leftist democracies.

• Democracy eroded, replaced by dictatorships in many countries.

• Mexico: One-party system.

• Venezuela and Colombia: Two-party systems.

• U.S. influence heavily shaped the political outcomes of Latin America during the Cold War.

Neocolonialism

Economic control without direct political rule, where independent nations remain economically dependent.

Countries with Notable Military Dictatorships

• Brazil (1964–85): Crucial in spreading military dictatorship model; governed by five different generals.

• Argentina (1976–83): Particularly violent, known for the “Dirty War”.

• Uruguay (1973–85)

• Paraguay (1954–89)

• Bolivia (1964–82)

• Peru (1968–75)

• Ecuador (1972–76)

• Chile (1973–90)

Brazil and Argentinas Dictatorship

Brazil:

• Crucial in spreading new dictatorships in Latin America

• Had 5 different generals as dictators

Argentina:

• Gained democracy, then lost it again

• Known for the "Dirty War" — a period of violent repression against its own people

Chile – Democratic Tradition & Safe Haven

• Had a long, well-established democratic tradition

• Oldest democracy in Latin America

• Became a safe haven (1950s–70s) for Latin American intellectuals, academics, and artists

• A Renaissance center for top music and thought

• Known for its think tanks and universities

Chilean Political Party System (Pre-1973)

• 10+ parties competing → robust democracy with diverse interests

• Popular Unity: coalition of liberal left to socialist parties

• Liberal Middle: smaller liberal parties

• Christian Democracy Party:

  • Center-right

  • Modeled after European Christian Democratic parties

  • Union of big business & religious right

Chilean Presidents: Alessandri & Frei

Jorge Alessandri (1958–64):

• Son of a former president

• Defeated Allende & Frei in 1958

• From the right wing

Eduardo Frei (1964–70):

• Centrist candidate

• Governed as a moderate

Salvador Allende (1970–73)

• Left-wing socialist, doctor, won presidency on 3rd try

• Democratically elected – seen as a threat by the U.S.

• Nationalized key industries: copper, steel, coal, banks, telecommunications

• Pushed aggressive reforms, including land reform (redistributing land to peasants)

• Faced high inflation

• Visited by Fidel Castro in 1971

• Represented a democratic form of socialism

1970 Chilean Election & Allende's Presidency Challenges

• 1970 Election Results:

  • Allende: 36.6%

  • Alessandri: 35.3%

  • Tomic: 28.1%

• Allende won with only 36% of the vote

• 1973: Impeachment effort failed — needed 60% of Congress, opposition had 55% through CODE coalition

• Despite elite opposition, Allende’s support grew to 44%

• Elites feared his rising popularity made him harder to remove

1973 Coup Against Allende – U.S. & Military Involvement

• U.S. supported right-wing efforts to oust Allende

• Coup on Sept 11, 1973

  • Radio stations attacked

  • Air Force bombed the Palacio de La Moneda (Chilean "White House")

  • Allende refused to step down, believing democracy would not return

• "The Battle of Chile" – documentary capturing the violence

• Military surrounded the palace, used artillery & airstrikes

• Marines declared control of the country

• Stadiums turned into concentration camps

  • Supporters imprisoned, including artist Victor Jara

Augusto Sandino:

• Revolutionary in Nicaragua killed in early 1930s; symbol of resistance.

• Oil engineer in Mexico, later joins the fight in Nicaragua

• Opposed U.S. occupation, became a revolutionary symbol

Anastasio Somoza Dynasty – Nicaragua (1936–1979)

• Anastasio Somoza García:

  • Sought power for personal gain

  • Became president in 1936, ruled until his death in 1956

  • Assassinated in 1956

• Sons continued rule until 1979

  • Often ruled behind the scenes even when not officially president

  • Younger Somoza (Anastasio Somoza Debayle):

    • President 1967–1979

    • Known for corruption, e.g., selling earthquake relief supplies for profit

The Sandinistas (FSLN) Nicaragua

• Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional- Sandinista Front for National Liberation

• Founded in 1961.

• Overthrew Somoza regime in 1979.

• Ruled via junta for five years.

• 1984 elections: Sandinistas won (free and fair).

  • Daniel Ortega became president (1984–90, again from 2007–present).

  • Later eroded democracy and became a dictator.

US Intervention

• Reagan started Cold War escalation.

• Created "Contras" (counter-revolutionaries).

• Iran-Contra Scandal: U.S. sold weapons to Iran, funded Contras with profits.

Farabundo Martí (El Salvador)

• Collaborator of Sandino.

• Attempted revolution in 1931; killed in 1932 along with 30,000+ others.

• Country dominated by coffee elites.

Archbishop Oscar Romero

• Rose to prominence in the 1970s.

• most recent to be declared a saint

• Influenced by liberation theology (Jesus as revolutionary figure).

• Began criticizing the regime.

• Assassinated during Mass in 1980.

• His death unified opposition.

Civil War and the FMLN

• FMLN (Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front) founded in 1980.

• Never won due to U.S. support for the Salvadoran regime.

• Over 10 years of civil war.

• El Mozote massacre (1984): Salvadoran government killed villagers.

• Cold War used as justification for brutal repression.

• Genocides and violence exacerbated by U.S. and Soviet involvement.

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

Economic policy aimed at reducing imports by producing goods domestically.

Banana Republics

Term for politically unstable countries heavily influenced by foreign corporations, particularly in Central America.

Populism

Political approach aimed at appealing to ordinary people, often involving centralized state control and clientelism.

Assassination of Jorge Eliécer Gaitán

His death led to massive riots in Bogotá and a decade of violent conflict in Colombia.

El Mozote massacre

Notorious event during the civil war in El Salvador where the government killed villagers.

Chicago Boys

Chilean economists who were trained in neoliberal ideas in the U.S. and implemented them in Chile.

Zapatista Uprising (1994)

Rebellion in Mexico led by the Zapatista Army against the state, focusing on indigenous rights and autonomy.

Neoliberalism

• An economic model focused on free markets, deregulation, and reducing the role of the state.

• Promotes: privatization, tax cuts (especially for the wealthy), austerity, free trade, deregulation.

• Aimed to make governments smaller, particularly after the large state apparatus post-Cold War.

Privatization

• Selling off government-owned enterprises (airlines, utilities, power plants, etc.).

Austerity

•  Cutting government spending, even on essential services like healthcare and education.

Implementation in Latin America

• Implemented heavily in the 1980s and 1990s (post-debt crisis).

• Caused growing economic inequality – Latin America became one of the most unequal regions.

• Original public sentiment was largely against neoliberal reforms.

• Policies often imposed through international institutions (IMF & World Bank) via Washington Consensus conditions.

Debt Crisis (1970s–1980s):

• Triggered by excessive government borrowing, inflation, and unstable commodity markets.

• Led to economic stagnation and forced many Latin American countries to seek assistance.

• Countries had to implement neoliberal reforms to get loans from the IMF and World Bank.

GDP Trends

• Before the crisis: ~3 decades of growth.

• 1970s–80s: Growth slowed, inflation rose, and political/economic restructuring was demanded.