Exam 2 HIST 1600

🌍 POST-INDEPENDENCE LATIN AMERICA (General Overview)

Consequences of Independence

• Political

  • Militarized politics due to lack of funding for a national army.

  • Rise of Caudillos—military strongmen with political and economic control:

    • Juan Manuel Rosas (Argentina)

    • Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (Mexico)

    • Jose Maria Oblando (Colombia)

    • Jose Antonio Paez (Venezuela)

  • Federalists vs. Centralists:

    • Federalists: power to states/provinces, small central government.

    • Centralists: strong, centralized government in capitals.

    • Centralists often aligned with colonial elites.

  • Liberals vs. Conservatives:

    • Liberals: Small government, individual rights, free trade.

    • Conservatives: Strong government, collective rights, monopolies; some supported monarchy.

  • Nation-building dilemmas:

    • No sense of nationalism right away.

    • Borders were unstable and constantly shifting.

    • Dangerous side of nationalism: defining who belongs and who doesn’t.

• Economic

  • Mining and plantation economies collapsed.

  • Mines became polluted and expensive to maintain.

  • Plantation lands broken up; people wanted small, personal plots.

  • Food was plentiful, but industry was devastated.

  • No credit system:

    • No banks in Latin America.

    • European banks refused to lend.

  • No silver exports = no tax revenue.

  • New nations turned to Britain for capital:

    • In return, opened markets to British imports (e.g., cheap textiles).

    • Result: De-industrialization.

    • This helped rural populations avoid factories, but hurt economic development.

🏛 NATIONALISM & WAR (1810s–1880s)

The Role of War in Shaping National Identity

• War fed nationalism and was seen as part of the "imagined community."

Key Wars & Their Effects

🇲🇽 U.S.-Mexico War (1846–1848)

• Texas declared independence (1836); Mexico had banned slavery.

• U.S. annexed Texas, provoking war over disputed territory.

• Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848):

  • U.S. gained a third of Mexico’s land.

  • Large Latino population became part of the U.S.

  • Triggered long-term tensions over identity and citizenship.

🇧🇷 Brazilian Independence (1822)

• Declared by Prince Pedro (Sept 7, 1822).

• Slaves not included in the nation; did not benefit.

• Independence was peaceful—elite-friendly.

• Political structure remained largely intact.

• Later impacted by the War of the Triple Alliance.

🇵🇾 War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870)

• Paraguay vs. Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay.

• Paraguay led by authoritarian leaders:

  • Francia → Carlos Antonio Lopez → Francisco Solano Lopez

• Paraguay initiated war over disputes involving Uruguay.

• Devastating consequences:

  • 20–60% of Paraguayan population died.

  • Massive debt, reparations, and territorial losses.

• Brazil:

  • War led to crisis, abolition of slavery (1888), and end of empire (1889).

• Argentina:

  • Political consolidation, nationalism, and economic gains.

• Uruguay:

  • Sandwiched between powers; heavily influenced.

🇨🇱 War of the Pacific (1879–1883)

• Chile vs. Peru and Bolivia.

• Conflict over guano (bird droppings = valuable fertilizer) and nitrate-rich lands.

• Bolivia taxed Chilean companies; Chile retaliated.

• British financial support helped Chile win.

• Result:

  • Chile gained nitrate- and copper-rich territory.

  • Peru and Bolivia lost land.

  • Bolivia lost access to the ocean, contributing to its modern-day poverty.

📜 Failed Federations & Fragmentation

Gran Colombia (1819–1831)

• Included Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama (until 1903).

• Collapsed after Bolivar’s death in 1830.

Federal Republic of Central America (1823–1841)

• Included Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Costa Rica.

• Fell apart due to liberal vs. conservative conflict.

Liberal Republics and Neocolonialism (1880–1930)

Characteristics of Liberal Republics

• Nations converged on the liberal republic model

• Technological modernization: railroads, industry

• Ideologies: Liberalism, Positivism, Progressivism

• Liberalism centered on:

  • Individual rights

  • Capitalism

  • Competition

  • Government-driven modernization

• Dominated by oligarchies (small groups of elites or families)

• Economic growth led to:

  • The term “millionaire” emerging

  • First time nations could finance massive buildings

Consequences of Capitalism

• Increased inequality:

  • Within nations: rich elites vs. poor workers

  • Among nations: industrial vs. resource-exporting countries

• Some became poorer (shift from subsistence to wage economy)

• Migration boom ("Golden Age of Migration")

  • Germans, Poles, Ukrainians, Middle Easterners to Latin America

  • Asians migrating as well for labor demand

Export-Oriented Economies in Latin America

• Raw Materials over Finished Goods

  • Agriculture: Cotton (textiles), Bananas (nutrition), Coffee (stimulant for workers)

  • Animal Products: Leather (military), meat (refrigerated trains/ships), belts (machinery)

  • Minerals/Fuels: Copper (electricity), Rubber (industrial use), Oil (Mexico, Venezuela)

Neocolonialism (1880–1930)

• Economic Liberalism without direct political control

• Informal colonization: nations politically independent, but economically dependent

• Dominated by corporations & foreign interests

• Navy power used to intimidate, not always invade ("Gunboat Diplomacy")

Key U.S. Interventions

• Panama (1903):

  • Independence from Colombia supported by U.S.

  • In exchange: U.S. builds and controls Panama Canal (1904–1914)

  • U.S. Navy deters Colombian resistance

• Other U.S. Interventions:

  • Puerto Rico and Cuba (1898)

  • Haiti (1915–1916)

  • Mexico (1914, 1916–17)

  • Nicaragua (1909, 1920s)

  • Dominican Republic (1916–1920s)

United Fruit Company

• Founded: 1899 (Boston)

• Dominated Central America and Caribbean

  • Owned land, built railroads, steamships

  • Controlled transportation, influenced government policy

• Marketed tourism with the “Great White Fleet”

• Created concept of “Banana Republics”

  • Corrupt dictatorships influenced by corporations

• Bananas:

  • Genetically identical, prone to disease

  • Popularized in U.S. through advertising

Key Country Histories

Panama

• 1903: Gained independence from Colombia with U.S. help

• Strategic due to Panama Canal

• Canal built 1904–1914 (shortest Atlantic–Pacific route)

• Canal requires ships to move up/down due to elevation differences

Dominican Republic Timeline

• 1822–1844: Haitian occupation

• 1844–1861: First Dominican Republic (independent)

• 1861–1865: Spanish recolonization

• 1865–1915: Second Republic

• 1916–1924: U.S. occupation

• Conservative elites supported Spanish recolonization

• U.S. supported Dominican independence but maintained economic dominance

Puerto Rico

• 1860s: Spanish colony

• 1868: Grito de Lares insurrection (coalition of federalists and formerly enslaved people)

• Known for high-altitude coffee production

Cuba

• 1868–1878: Ten Years’ War

  • Led by liberal urban elites, professionals, and formerly enslaved people

  • Aimed for independence and economic liberalism

• 1895: Second revolution led by José Martí

  • Raised international support but cautious of U.S. intentions

• 1898: USS Maine explosion → U.S. enters Spanish-American War

Overview of Populism in Latin America

• Emerged during the 1930s as a response to:

  • Great Depression

  • 1919 global pandemic

  • Collapse of liberal governments across Latin America

• Populism Characteristics:

  • Not a liberal democracy

  • Centralization of political economies

  • State intervention to protect and grow industries (Import Substitution Industrialization - ISI)

  • Integration of political minorities

  • Clientelism: reciprocal political relationships; transactional

  • Promises everything to everybody; tries to appeal to everyone

  • Nationalist, anti-imperialist foreign policy

  • Era of "big government"

  • Leaders use contradictory rhetoric

  • Populists view the world corporately — individuals as part of larger groups

• External Interference: Increased U.S. and European involvement in region

• Reemergence of neopopulism in the 2000s

Key Populist Leaders by Country

Mexico – Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–1940)

• Revolutionary and populist president

• Major reforms:

  • Nationalized oil, railroads, and British-owned cotton haciendas

  • Land reform: redistributed land to peasants

  • Infrastructure: built roads, dams, cities in the desert

  • Dealt with mass unemployment after Great Depression

  • Responded to mass deportation of Mexican Americans from the U.S.

• Political moves:

  • Expanded voting rights (including women’s suffrage — implemented nationally later)

  • Created a centralized, dominant political party (PRI)

  • Not fully democratic

Brazil – Getúlio Vargas

• Rise to power: Came in via revolution (1930), supported by leftists and radical military

• Positions held:

  • Interim President: 1930–1934

  • Constitutional President: 1934–1937

  • Dictator (Estado Novo): 1937–1945

  • President again: 1951–1954

• Estado Novo (1930–1945):

  • Violent overthrow of the “Old Republic” (café com leite system)

  • Aimed to remake the Brazilian state, eliminating old coffee elite structure

  • Nationalist, centralized control of industry

• World War II stance:

  • Hesitant between Allies and Axis

  • Eventually joins Allies but overthrown post-war

• Final Years:

  • Returns as elected president

  • Faced press opposition, scandals, and impeachment threat

  • Commits suicide in 1954, turning death into a political statement

Argentina – Juan & Eva Perón

• Juan Perón:

  • Emerged during Concordancia military dictatorship (1930–43)

  • Popular despite efforts to oust him

  • Won 1946 election; formed own political party

  • President: 1946–1955, 1973–1974

  • Promoted Peronism: a blend of left and right-wing populism

  • Emphasized “us vs. them” rhetoric

• Eva Perón (Evita):

  • Born working-class (1922); became radio/film star

  • Married Perón in 1944; became politically active

  • Instrumental in passing women’s suffrage law

  • Died of ovarian cancer shortly after suffrage law passed; body was mummified

  • Famous for her emotional and symbolic public speeches (e.g., “Announcement of Women’s Suffrage”)

Colombia – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán

• Left-leaning populist, excellent orator

• United Colombian left through rhetoric and policies

• Was favorite to win 1950 presidential election

• Assassinated during rally, leading to:

  • Bogotazo: massive riots in Bogotá

  • Riots spread across the country

  • Triggered a decade of violent conflict in Colombia

Peru – Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre

• Born 1895, student activist

• Founded APRA (American Popular Revolutionary Alliance)

  • Aimed for transnational populist movement

  • Progressive ideas: women’s rights, racial inclusion

  • Was never president but influential

  • Avoided rigid left/right dichotomy

Historical Context: Mexican Revolution Timeline

• Porfiriato (1876–1911): Liberal republic under Porfirio Díaz

• Revolution (1911–1920): First major uprising against liberalism in Latin America

• Moderate rule (1920–1934): Limited reforms

• Populist Era (1934–1940): Under Cárdenas

Themes to Study

• Clientelism vs. Democracy: transactional politics vs. institutionalized systems

• Nationalization: How state took control over private/foreign assets

• Contradictions of Populism: left/right blend, promises to all, elite ties

• Role of Women: Evita Perón & women’s suffrage efforts

• Revolution to Populism: Movement from radical revolutions to state-led populism

• Cold War Repercussions: Leftist populists categorized and suppressed

🌍 Cold War Context in Latin America

• Geopolitical Rivalry: US vs. USSR

• Foreign Intervention: US and USSR influenced Latin American politics, economies, and military

• Excuse for Intervention: Cold War used as a justification for interventions (e.g., Vietnam, Afghanistan)

• Violence & Hot Wars: Civil wars, coups, overthrows

• Destruction of Democracy: Rise of dictatorship; by 1970, few democracies left

  • Remaining: Colombia, Venezuela (two-party), and Mexico (one-party)

• Democracy in the 1950s: Rising across Latin America until disrupted by Cold War politics

🇬🇹 Guatemala

Background

• Jorge Ubico: Dictator from 1931, replaced oligarchic liberal republic

• October Revolution (1944): Ubico overthrown in a coup

• United Fruit Company: Controlled large areas of land; contributed to inequality and unrest

Arévalo and Arbenz Era

• Juan José Arévalo (1945): Centrist, reformer, redistributed wealth

• Jacobo Árbenz (1951): Took reforms further; land redistribution threatened elites

1954 US-Backed Coup

• Fear of Communism: Arbenz labeled as a communist

• US Involvement:

  • John Foster Dulles (Secretary of State) & Allen Dulles (CIA): Both had ties to United Fruit

  • Supported Carlos Castillo Armas, trained soldiers in Honduras with CIA help

  • Armas overthrew Arbenz and became dictator (1954–1957)

• Aftermath:

  • Violence, radicalization, anti-US sentiment

  • Civil War (1960–1996): Government outlawed opposition (e.g., PGT), fueled guerrilla warfare

  • Genocide in the 1980s

🇨🇺 Cuban Revolution

Batista’s Rule

• Fulgencio Batista:

  • De facto leader (1934–40), President (1940–44), Dictator (1952–59)

  • Corrupt, favored elites, opposed by student movements

Rise of Castro

• Moncada Barracks Attack (1953): Failed uprising led by Fidel Castro → imprisoned → exile in Mexico

• July 26 Movement: Revolutionary group formed with Che Guevara

• Propaganda & Popularity: Used radio, pamphlets to rally support

Revolution Victory

• January 1, 1959: Batista flees, Castro takes power

• 1960: Castro consolidates power, displaces rivals, still not openly communist

• 1961: US severs diplomatic ties

Bay of Pigs & Missile Crisis

• Bay of Pigs (April 1961): Failed CIA-backed invasion; JFK refused air support

• Castro’s Popularity Increases

• Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962): Closest the world came to nuclear war; US vs. USSR over nuclear weapons in Cuba

🌀 Key Events & Concepts

• Right-Wing Coups: US-backed overthrows across Latin America (e.g., Guatemala, Chile)

• Shock Doctrine: Using crisis to implement neoliberal reforms

• FSLN (Sandinistas): Leftist revolutionary group in Nicaragua

• FMLN: Guerrilla organization in El Salvador, later a political party

• "Domino Theory": US belief that communism would spread country by country

🇦🇷 Anti-US Sentiment & Latin American Radicalization

• Reaction to US interventions (e.g., in Guatemala and Cuba)

• Nixon’s Latin America tour met with protests (Brazil, Argentina, Peru)

• Latin Americans focused more on democracy than communism

• Seen in cultural responses (e.g., Diego Rivera’s Gloriosa Victoria, 1954)

I. General Themes in Latin America (1960s–1980s)

• Rise of military dictatorships throughout Latin America in response to:

  • Backlash against popular mobilization in the 1960s–70s.

  • Fear of communism after the Cuban Revolution.

  • Latin American elites and the U.S. preferred right-wing dictatorships to leftist democracies.

• Democracy eroded, replaced by dictatorships in many countries.

• Mexico: One-party system.

• Venezuela and Colombia: Two-party systems.

• U.S. influence heavily shaped the political outcomes of Latin America during the Cold War.

II. Military Dictatorships by Country

Countries with Notable Military Dictatorships

• Brazil (1964–85): Crucial in spreading military dictatorship model; governed by five different generals.

• Argentina (1976–83): Particularly violent, known for the “Dirty War”.

• Uruguay (1973–85)

• Paraguay (1954–89)

• Bolivia (1964–82)

• Peru (1968–75)

• Ecuador (1972–76)

• Chile (1973–90)

III. Case Study: Chile

Before the Coup

• Strongest democratic tradition in Latin America.

• Haven for intellectuals, artists, academics in the 50s–70s.

• Robust multi-party democracy (10 parties).

  • Popular Unity: Coalition of liberal and socialist parties.

  • Christian Democratic Party: Center-right, modeled after European Christian democracy.

Key Presidents

• Jorge Alessandri (1958–64): Right-wing; son of a former president.

• Eduardo Frei (1964–70): Centrist, moderate reformer.

• Salvador Allende (1970–73):

  • Elected with 36.6% of the vote.

  • Socialist doctor, ran three times before winning.

  • Implemented nationalizations (copper, steel, coal, banks, telecoms).

  • Aggressive land reform (redistributing land to peasants).

  • U.S. strongly opposed him.

  • Fidel Castro visited in 1971.

  • Increasing popular support despite elite opposition.

1973 Coup

• Led by the military on September 11, 1973.

• CODE coalition of opposition gained 55% in Congress.

• Failed impeachment attempt (required 60%).

• Allende refused to step down, predicting end of democracy.

• Military attack on La Moneda (Presidential Palace).

• "Battle of Chile" documentary captured the events.

• Stadiums in Santiago turned into concentration camps.

• Notable victims include Victor Jara (musician).

IV. Nicaragua

Historical Background

• Augusto Sandino: Revolutionary killed in early 1930s; symbol of resistance.

• Anastasio Somoza García:

  • Took power in 1936; family ruled until 1979.

  • Sons took over after his death; continued dictatorship.

  • Profited from disasters (e.g., selling relief supplies).

The Sandinistas (FSLN)

• Founded in 1961.

• Overthrew Somoza regime in 1979.

• Ruled via junta for five years.

• 1984 elections: Sandinistas won (free and fair).

  • Daniel Ortega became president (1984–90, again from 2007–present).

  • Later eroded democracy and became a dictator.

U.S. Intervention

• Reagan started Cold War escalation.

• Created "Contras" (counter-revolutionaries).

• Iran-Contra Scandal: U.S. sold weapons to Iran, funded Contras with profits.

V. El Salvador

Farabundo Martí

• Collaborator of Sandino.

• Attempted revolution in 1931; killed in 1932 along with 30,000+ others.

• Country dominated by coffee elites.

Archbishop Oscar Romero

• Rose to prominence in the 1970s.

• Influenced by liberation theology (Jesus as revolutionary figure).

• Began criticizing the regime.

• Assassinated during Mass in 1980.

• His death unified opposition.

Civil War and the FMLN

• FMLN (Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front) founded in 1980.

• Never won due to U.S. support for the Salvadoran regime.

• Over 10 years of civil war.

• El Mozote massacre (1984): Salvadoran government killed villagers.

• Cold War used as justification for brutal repression.

• Genocides and violence exacerbated by U.S. and Soviet involvement.

I. Neoliberalism & Economic Policies

Key Concepts:

• Neoliberalism:

  • An economic model focused on free markets, deregulation, and reducing the role of the state.

  • Promotes: privatization, tax cuts (especially for the wealthy), austerity, free trade, deregulation.

  • Aimed to make governments smaller, particularly after the large state apparatus post-Cold War.

  • Shock Doctrine: Concept where neoliberal reforms are pushed through during crises when populations are too disoriented to resist.

Implementation:

• Chicago Boys: Chilean economists trained in the U.S. who brought neoliberal ideas back to Chile.

• Privatization: Selling off government-owned enterprises (airlines, utilities, power plants, etc.).

• Austerity: Cutting government spending, even on essential services like healthcare and education.

• Free Trade: Lowering trade barriers and increasing exports, echoing classical liberalism.

• Deregulation: Reducing government controls on business to encourage entrepreneurship.

Impact in Latin America:

• Implemented heavily in the 1980s and 1990s (post-debt crisis).

• Caused growing economic inequality – Latin America became one of the most unequal regions.

• Original public sentiment was largely against neoliberal reforms.

• Policies often imposed through international institutions (IMF & World Bank) via Washington Consensusconditions.

II. Economic Crises & Structural Changes

Debt Crisis (1970s–1980s):

• Triggered by excessive government borrowing, inflation, and unstable commodity markets.

• Led to economic stagnation and forced many Latin American countries to seek assistance.

• Countries had to implement neoliberal reforms to get loans from the IMF and World Bank.

GDP Trends:

• Before the crisis: ~3 decades of growth.

• 1970s–80s: Growth slowed, inflation rose, and political/economic restructuring was demanded.

III. Country-Specific Developments

Chile:

• Dictatorship (Pinochet): Took power in 1973, rewrote the constitution in 1980.

• 1980 Constitution: Mandated a plebiscite after 8 years to confirm Pinochet’s rule.

• 1988 Plebiscite: The “No” campaign won. Pinochet was forced to step down but remained a senator with immunity.

• Reforms: Chile was a testing ground for early neoliberal reforms.

• "Chile No" Campaign: Organized resistance that successfully restored democracy.

Argentina:

• Dictatorship Timeline: 1976–1983 junta, brutal “Dirty War” (30,000 disappeared).

• Human Rights Violations: Kidnapping of children, use of torture, state terrorism.

• Mothers/Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo: Activist groups demanding justice.

• Falklands War (1982): Attempt by military regime to distract from domestic crisis by invading British territory (Malvinas). Defeat led to regime collapse.

• Return to Democracy:

  • Raúl Alfonsín (1983–1989): First democratic president post-dictatorship.

  • Carlos Menem (1989–1999): Neoliberal reforms implemented.

• Truth & Reconciliation: Argentina took the lead in investigating past human rights abuses.

Brazil:

• Dictatorship: 1964–1985, ruled by a series of generals.

• Transition to Democracy:

  • Jose Sarney (1985–1990): First civilian president.

  • Fernando Collor (1990–1992): Impeached for corruption.

  • Fernando Henrique Cardoso: Introduced neoliberal reforms in the 1990s.

  • Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva: Prominent political figure, president in the 2000s, seen as the most popular modern Brazilian politician.

Mexico:

• One-party state (PRI dominated).

• 1985 Earthquake: Over 100,000 deaths in Mexico City, government response was inadequate.

• Economic Crisis in the 1980s: Prompted neoliberal reforms under the PRI.

• 1988 Election:

  • Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988–1994) won amid massive fraud allegations.

  • First use of computers in vote tallying; results suspicious after a system “crash.”

  • Opponent: Populist Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas.

• Salinas’ Reforms:

  • Signed NAFTA (now USMCA).

  • Promoted privatization, land reform rollback, free trade, labor law changes.

  • Introduced maquiladoras: low-paying manufacturing plants near U.S. border.

• Zapatista Uprising (1994):

  • EZLN (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional) declared war on the Mexican state.

  • Based in Chiapas, Mexico’s poorest state.

  • Led by Subcomandante Marcos.

IV. Summary of Key Terms

• Neoliberalism: Free markets, small government, deregulation.

• Shock Doctrine: Using crises to implement neoliberal reforms.

• Maquiladora: Factory in Mexico assembling exports, low wages.

• World Bank/IMF: Financial institutions pushing neoliberalism via loans.

• Malvinas/Falklands War: 1982 conflict between Argentina and Britain.

• Debt Crisis: 1980s economic collapse in Latin America.

• Dirty War: Argentina’s state terrorism campaign.

• Austerity: Deep government spending cuts.

• NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement (1994).

• Chicago Boys: Chilean economists trained in neoliberalism.