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Chapter 9.2 Industrialization Spreads
European Migration
Internal Migration:
The Industrial Revolution triggered significant internal migration within Europe, primarily from rural areas to urban centers.
By the mid-nineteenth century, more than half of Europe's population had moved to cities, driven by the demand for industrial labor and the decline of traditional peasant farming and artisan manufacturing.
International Migration:
Between 1815 and 1939, approximately 20 percent of Europe’s population, or about 50 to 55 million people, emigrated to other continents, including the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
Factors pushing this migration included poverty, population growth, and economic changes that undermined traditional livelihoods.
Pull factors included the demand for labor overseas, the availability of land, and the advent of cheaper and faster transportation via railroads and steamships.
Return Migration:
Not all European emigrants found success abroad; about 7 million eventually returned to Europe, often due to unmet expectations or challenging conditions in their new countries.
Global Impact of European Migration
Demographic Changes:
This migration significantly altered the global demographic landscape, increasing Europe’s share of the world population.
In 1800, Europeans and their descendants overseas constituted less than 1 percent of the global population; by 1930, this figure had risen to 11 percent.
Settler Colonies in the Pacific:
In regions like Australia and New Zealand, European settlers became the majority, overwhelming the indigenous populations through conquest and disease.
By the late nineteenth century, Europeans in New Zealand outnumbered the native Maori significantly.
Migration to the Americas:
Latin America received about 20 percent of European migrants, with Argentina and Brazil being major destinations. These migrants, often considered "white," generally enjoyed social and economic advantages over local mixed-race, indigenous, and African populations.
The United States experienced the most substantial and diverse influx of European immigrants, with 32 million arriving between 1820 and 1930. The U.S. offered accessible land and industrial jobs, attracting a wide array of European nationalities.
Cultural and Social Dynamics in the United States:
The U.S. developed the national myth of the "melting pot," although there was significant resistance and prejudice against newer immigrants, particularly Catholics and Jews from Southern and Eastern Europe, who were often blamed for crime and social unrest.
European Migration to the Russian Empire:
Similar to the United States, the Russian Empire saw significant internal migration, especially after the emancipation of the serfs in 1861.
Approximately 13 million Russians and Ukrainians moved to Siberia, facilitated by land availability and the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railroad. This migration helped solidify Russian control over Siberia and relieve population pressure in western Russia.
AP Question:
What aspects of the Industrial Revolution facilitated the migration of Europeans to other parts of the world?
Economic Displacement and Unemployment:
The mechanization of agriculture and the rise of factory production displaced many traditional artisans and farmers, leading to unemployment and economic hardship. This drove individuals to seek better opportunities overseas, where labor markets were less saturated.
Population Growth:
The Industrial Revolution contributed to a significant increase in population due to improved medical care and increased food production. This population boom created pressure on land and jobs, prompting many to emigrate in search of new opportunities.
Advancements in Transportation:
Developments in transportation, particularly the expansion of railway networks and the advent of steam-powered ships, made long-distance travel more feasible and affordable. This allowed for larger numbers of people to migrate across continents with greater ease than ever before.
Demand for Labor Overseas:
Industrialization and economic development in regions like the Americas, Australia, and South Africa created a high demand for labor, which could not be met locally. European migrants were attracted by the opportunities to work in these growing economies, often in mining, railroads, and agriculture.
Availability of Land:
The availability of arable land in the Americas and Australasia appealed to many Europeans facing land shortages at home. Policies like the Homestead Acts in the United States offered land to settlers for little or no cost, providing a significant incentive for impoverished Europeans.
Government and Private Initiatives:
Some European governments, as well as private companies, encouraged and sometimes subsidized emigration to relieve social pressures at home and to fulfill labor needs abroad. These initiatives often included providing information on opportunities overseas and assisting with travel arrangements.
Variations: Industrialization spreads beyond Europe
Global Spread of Industrialization:
The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain, quickly spread to continental Western Europe and, by the late nineteenth century, had taken root in the United States, Russia, and Japan. This marked the beginning of the globalization of industrialization.
Common Outcomes of Industrialization:
Across different regions, industrialization led to similar outcomes:
New technologies and energy sources significantly increased production capacities.
There was a marked increase in urbanization as people moved to cities for industrial jobs.
Social structures evolved with the decline of aristocrats, artisans, and peasants, and the rise of the middle classes and a factory-based working class.
Middle-class women typically withdrew from the workforce, while working-class women sought to do so after marriage but faced lower wages and challenges in union membership.
Gender and Labor Dynamics:
Industrialization affected men and women differently in the workforce:
Working women generally received lower wages than men, had difficulties in joining trade unions, and were often accused of taking jobs from men.
The disparities in labor conditions between genders contributed to ongoing social tensions within the burgeoning industrial societies.
Response to Industrial Challenges:
The frustrations and hardships faced by the working class led to the formation of trade unions and the rise of socialist movements, introducing new dimensions of social conflict in industrialized societies.
Diverse Industrialization Experiences
Country-Specific Variations:
The impact and development of the Industrial Revolution varied significantly across different countries due to their unique histories, cultures, economic structures, and political environments:
France: Industrialization progressed more slowly and less disruptively, emphasizing less on textile production and more on other industries over time.
Germany: Focused on heavy industries like iron, steel, and coal from the outset and saw the rise of large corporate entities known as cartels. The labor movement in Germany was more militant and heavily influenced by Marxist ideas compared to Britain.
Distinct Paths in the United States and Russia:
United States: By the early twentieth century, industrialization had transformed the U.S. into a major global power. The country's democratic governance, combined with a vigorous, expanding economy and a diverse population, starkly contrasted with European models.
Russia: Characterized by autocratic rule, a vast population of serfs, and a sprawling empire, Russia's industrialization eventually spurred a significant revolutionary upheaval, leading to the establishment of the world's first communist state.
AP Questions:
Compare examples of industrialization that were state sponsored with those that were not.
State-Sponsored Industrialization:
Russia: The Tsarist government played a significant role in industrializing the country, especially through the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which opened vast areas to mining and manufacturing. The state's involvement was crucial in navigating the challenges posed by Russia's vast geography and lack of developed infrastructure.
Japan: The Meiji Restoration marked a period where the Japanese government actively fostered industrial growth through policies that integrated Western technologies and practices, established modern factories, and invested in education and infrastructure.
Privately Led Industrialization:
United States: Industrialization in the U.S. was largely driven by private enterprise. The government provided supportive policies like the Homestead Act, but the main thrust came from private individuals and companies who built factories, railroads, and other industrial infrastructures. This approach allowed for rapid and diverse industrial growth, fueled by innovation and competition.
Britain: As the pioneer of the Industrial Revolution, Britain's industrialization was primarily driven by private entrepreneurs and inventors in a relatively laissez-faire economic environment. The government's role was minimal in the early stages, focusing more on maintaining stability and protecting intellectual property.
How might the political and social backgrounds of the United States and Russia have affected their industrial development?
United States:
The U.S. benefited from a political system that promoted private property rights, entrepreneurial freedoms, and a decentralized government structure. These factors made it conducive for private sector-led industrial growth.
The democratic framework and a culture that valued innovation and risk-taking helped fuel rapid industrial expansion and technological advancements.
Russia:
Russia's autocratic system under the Tsars, with centralized control and less emphasis on individual property rights, meant that industrialization was top-down and state-driven.
The social structure, dominated by a vast peasantry and a small elite, slowed the development of a consumer base for industrial goods, necessitating state intervention to mobilize resources for industrialization.
How were the outcomes of the Industrial Revolution similar in Europe, the United States, Russia, and Japan?
Increased Urbanization:
All regions experienced significant urban growth as populations moved from rural to urban areas to work in new industries. This shift was a universal characteristic of industrialization.
Class Structure Transformation:
The Industrial Revolution transformed class structures by diminishing the roles of aristocrats and peasants and elevating the positions of the middle class and industrial working class across all these regions.
Technological and Production Advances:
Each region saw dramatic increases in production capabilities and the adoption of new technologies, which significantly raised the output and efficiency of various sectors, including textiles, steel, and transportation.
Rise of Social Conflicts and Movements:
Industrialization brought about labor disputes, strikes, and the formation of trade unions as workers sought better wages and conditions. Additionally, socialist and communist ideologies began to take root, particularly in places like Russia and Japan, reflecting workers' responses to the inequalities generated by rapid industrial expansion.
The United States: Industrialization without Socialism
Early Industrialization and Growth:
Industrialization in the United States began in the textile factories of New England during the 1820s and expanded significantly after the Civil War.
By 1914, the U.S. had become the world's leading industrial power, producing 36 percent of the world's manufactured goods, surpassing Germany, Great Britain, and France.
The growth was supported by the country's vast natural resources, a large domestic market, political stability, and significant foreign investment, primarily from Europe.
Government Role and Business Growth:
The U.S. government supported industrial growth through policies such as tax breaks, extensive grants of public land to railroad companies, and laws facilitating the formation of corporations.
These policies helped foster the rise of large business enterprises like U.S. Steel Corporation, which by 1901 had a budget three times the size of the federal government’s budget.
Innovation and Consumer Culture:
The U.S. pioneered mass production techniques such as interchangeable parts, assembly lines, and scientific management, which were geared towards mass markets.
Innovations in advertising, mail-order catalogs from companies like Sears Roebuck and Montgomery Ward, and the development of urban department stores cultivated a middle-class culture of consumption.
Social and Economic Challenges:
Despite economic advancements, the U.S. faced significant social divisions by the end of the nineteenth century, with a growing gap between the wealthy and the working class.
Industrial workers faced harsh working conditions, and cities struggled with issues like overcrowding and inadequate sanitation, especially evident in the living conditions of many European immigrants in places like Manhattan.
Labor Movements and Social Response:
The difficult conditions led to considerable labor unrest, union formations, strikes, and sometimes violence, as seen in the 1877 railroad strike which resulted in widespread disruption and riots.
Unlike Europe, the U.S. did not see a significant political party emerge that represented the working class, and socialist ideas were less appealing to American workers compared to their European counterparts.
Cultural and Political Reactions to Industrialization:
The American Federation of Labor, focusing on skilled workers, tended to be conservative and did not align with any political party, limiting broader labor movements.
The diversity of the American labor force, including racial and ethnic differences, hindered class solidarity and the sustainability of socialist movements.
Progressive movements in the early twentieth century and populist uprisings among farmers addressed industrial and financial inequities but did not fundamentally shift towards socialism, which was often viewed as un-American.
Populism and Progressivism:
The Populist movement, particularly strong among farmers, criticized monopolies, banks, and the political influence of corporate interests.
Progressives successfully pushed for reforms like wages-and-hours legislation and greater governmental intervention in the economy, reflecting a more reform-oriented response to the challenges of industrialization.
AP Questions:
How did the process of industrialization in the United States differ from the process of industrialization in Russia?
Role of the Government:
United States: The U.S. government played a supportive role in industrialization through policies like tax breaks, land grants to railroad companies, and relaxed regulations, fostering a favorable environment for private enterprises to thrive. The approach was more about creating a conducive environment for businesses rather than direct involvement.
Russia: In contrast, the Russian government was heavily involved in the industrialization process, particularly under Tsarist rule. This included significant state investment in key industries like steel and the extensive use of state planning and control, reflecting a more centralized and directive approach.
Economic Foundations and Resources:
United States: The U.S. had abundant natural resources and a large domestic market that fueled its industrial growth. Additionally, the U.S. had a significant influx of foreign capital that helped build its industrial infrastructure.
Russia: Russia also possessed vast natural resources, but its industrialization was hampered by less developed infrastructure and a smaller domestic market compared to the U.S. The Russian economy was also more heavily reliant on agriculture well into the 20th century.
Social and Labor Dynamics:
United States: The U.S. saw a diverse influx of immigrants who provided labor for its industries and a middle class that grew alongside industrialization, fostering a consumer culture.
Russia: Industrialization in Russia did not see the same level of middle-class expansion or immigration. The workforce was often composed of domestic rural migrants who moved to urban centers, and the social structure remained more rigid.
Political Ideology:
United States: The U.S. embraced capitalism and had a political culture that celebrated individualism and entrepreneurship, which was conducive to industrial expansion.
Russia: Russia's autocratic and later communist governance systems imposed different ideological constraints, focusing on state control over the economy and less on individual enterprise.
Why did Marxist socialism not develop in the United States?
Economic Prosperity and Middle-Class Growth:
The relatively high standard of living, widespread property ownership, and the availability of economic opportunities provided many workers and their families with a stake in the capitalist system, reducing the appeal of socialism.
Cultural and Political Factors:
American values of individualism, self-reliance, and the pursuit of personal success are deeply ingrained in the national psyche, often clashing with socialist ideals that emphasize collective ownership and economic equality.
The U.S. political system, with its emphasis on democratic processes and individual rights, provided avenues for gradual reform rather than revolutionary change, which mitigated the appeal of radical socialism.
Diverse Workforce:
The heterogeneity of the American workforce, including a mix of immigrants from various backgrounds and races, often impeded the class solidarity necessary for a socialist movement to take root.
Labor movements in the U.S. were fragmented and often more concerned with immediate issues such as wages and working conditions rather than broader ideological shifts towards socialism.
Union Conservatism:
Major American unions, particularly the American Federation of Labor, focused on skilled workers and were generally conservative, prioritizing immediate labor gains over radical political change.
Lack of a Significant Socialist Political Force:
Socialist parties in the United States, such as the Socialist Party of America, never gained the level of influence or electoral success that socialist parties achieved in Europe. The U.S. political landscape was dominated by two major parties, making it difficult for a third party to gain significant traction.
Russia: Industrialization and Revolution
Overview of the Industrial Revolution in Russia
Political and Social Context:
Contrast Between Russia and the United States: While the United States was noted for its democratic governance during the 19th century, Russia remained an absolute monarchy with the Tsar holding unchecked power.
Autocracy in Russia: At the start of the 20th century, Russia lacked basic democratic institutions such as a national parliament, legal political parties, and nationwide elections. The Tsarist regime was authoritarian, with the Tsar answerable only to divine authority.
Societal Structure:
Nobility and Serfdom: Russian society was sharply divided, . The nobility, with a small upper class of nobility that controlled vast estates and a large population of serfs who were legally bound to their land until 1861.
The nobility was often Westernized and speaking languages like French
The serfs were deeply rooted in rural Orthodox Christian traditions, which included elements of pre-Christian beliefs.
Serfdom: Up until their emancipation in 1861, serfs were bound to their masters' estates, could be sold, and lived under severe exploitation.
Industrial Development:
State-Driven Change: Unlike the commoner-driven industrial changes in the United States, Russian industrialization was largely initiated by the state as part of its efforts to modernize and compete with Europe. This top-down approach was shown early on during the reign of Peter the Great and continued into the 19th century.
Emancipation of the Serfs: The Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861, prompted by Russia's defeat in the Crimean War, was part of broader state-led reforms aimed at modernizing the country and stimulating economic development.
Industrialization Efforts and Outcomes:
Launch of Industrialization: By the 1890s, Russia had initiated a significant industrial push, focusing on railroads and heavy industry, supported by considerable foreign investment.
Industrial Growth by 1900: Russia became a major industrial power, ranking fourth globally in steel production and developing significant coal, textile, and oil industries. Industrial activities were concentrated in major urban centers like Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kiev, with factories substantially larger than those commonly found in Western Europe at the time.
Social and Political Impact of Industrialization in Russia
Middle Class Development:
The industrial boom in Russia saw the emergence of a middle class composed of businessmen and professionals. This group was modern, educated, and significantly reliant on the state for their livelihoods, particularly in terms of obtaining contracts and jobs.
They also depended on the state's ability to suppress the radical tendencies among the workers, which they viewed with great concern.
Conditions of the Working Class:
Making up about 5% of the total population, factory workers developed a strong class consciousness due to the harsh conditions they endured. There were no legal avenues available for them to air their problems, which compounded their difficulties.
Factory workers faced severe working conditions with extremely long hours, poor living conditions, and a lack of legal mechanisms for addressing their problems to the state and beyond.
Labor Unrest and Strikes: The absence of legal unions or political platforms for worker's rights frequently led to large-scale strikes as the primary form of protest against the oppressive working conditions.
Migration and Urbanization:
The end of the 19th century saw massive migration to urban centers like Moscow and St. Petersburg, where over 70% of the population by 1897 were recent rural migrants. These workers lived in extremely poor conditions where people of all ages and genders were cramped together without proper living spaces.
Marxist Influence and Party Formation:
In response to the oppressive industrial and social conditions, a segment of educated Russians embraced Marxist socialism, forming the illegal Russian Social Democratic Labor Party in 1898. This party played a central role in organizing, educating, and agitating the workers towards revolutionary ideals.
1905 Revolution:
Triggered by defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and fueled by the built-up social and industrial tensions, Russia experienced a significant insurrection in 1905. The revolution saw widespread participation from various social groups including workers, peasants, and the military, leading to the establishment of soviets (worker councils) and increased political activism.
Reforms and their Limitations:
Reforms: Although the 1905 revolution was brutally suppressed, it compelled the Tsarist regime to implement reforms.
Constitution: A constitution was granted to provide a basic legal framework for governance.
Legalization of Political Activities: Trade unions and political parties were legalized, allowing for more structured political engagement and labor representation.
Duma: The election of a national assembly, called the Duma, was permitted to facilitate representative governance.
Censorship and Education: Censorship was eased, promoting freer communication and expression. Plans for universal primary education were set in motion to improve literacy and educational access.
Industrial Advancement: Despite the social upheavals, industrial development continued robustly, with Russia ranking fifth globally in overall output by 1914.
Continued Unrest and Strikes:
By 1914, significant unrest persisted with approximately 1,250,000 workers going on strike. The industrial workforce was dissatisfied with the inadequacy of the Tsar’s reforms in addressing the root causes of worker discontent.
Political Landscape and Revolutionary Parties: The limited scope and often reversed nature of the Tsar’s reforms did little to quell the workers’ radicalism or improve the social stability of Russia. This ongoing unrest set the stage for further revolutionary activities, with various socialist groups gaining influence and organization.
World War I: A Precursor to the 1917 Revolution:
The exacerbation of hardships due to World War I, combined with the enduring tensions from industrialization under the tsar, directly led to the Russian Revolution of 1917.
This revolution was distinctive in its violence and the radical change it brought, overthrowing the Tsarist autocracy and bringing the Bolsheviks to power, led by Vladimir Lenin.
Establishment of a Socialist State:
The Bolsheviks' rise to power marked the creation of the world's first socialist state, the Soviet Union, influenced by Marxist ideology.
This had significant consequences not only for Russia but for the entire 20th century, as it introduced a very innovative political and economic model that would eventually clash with the towering force of capitalism after World War II
AP Questions:
What factors contributed to the making of a revolutionary situation in Russia by the beginning of the twentieth century?
Autocratic Political System: Russia's governance under the Tsar was marked by absolute monarchy without checks or democratic mechanisms such as a parliament or legal political parties.
Economic Backwardness: Despite attempts at modernization, Russia's economy lagged behind Western Europe, heavily reliant on an agrarian system with widespread serfdom until 1861.
Rapid Industrialization without Social Reforms: After the emancipation of serfs in 1861, Russia attempted to industrialize rapidly, which brought about severe social strains without accompanying social reforms or political freedoms.
Poor Working Conditions and Worker Exploitation: The burgeoning industrial sector, particularly in major cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg, subjected workers to grueling conditions, long hours, and low pay.
Growth of the Proletariat: Industrialization led to the growth of a factory-based working class, who, despite making up a small percentage of the population, faced intense exploitation and developed a strong class consciousness.
Spread of Marxist Ideology: The dissemination of Marxist ideas provided a political and economic critique of capitalism, resonating deeply with the oppressed workers and intellectuals.
Failure of 1905 Revolution and Inadequate Reforms: The suppression of the 1905 insurrection and the half-hearted reforms that followed failed to address core issues, leaving the populace restless and disillusioned.
World War I: The extreme hardships and inequities brought on by the war effort exacerbated existing social tensions, acting as a catalyst for the 1917 Revolution.
Emergence of Revolutionary Leadership: The formation of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party and other revolutionary groups provided organization and leadership, crucial for mobilizing the masses towards revolutionary action.
Which empires expanded, which ones contracted, and which ones collapsed during the Industrial Revolution and before WWI?
Expansion:
British Empire: The British Empire expanded its influence extensively during the Industrial Revolution, establishing control over large parts of Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. Key acquisitions included the crown jewel, India, and territories in Africa during the Scramble for Africa. The industrial capacity and naval superiority of Britain played critical roles in this expansion.
Russian Empire: Russia expanded into Central Asia and further into Siberia, securing vast territories rich in resources. This expansion was driven by the strategic need to access more resources and secure its borders against European powers.
United States: The United States expanded across the North American continent through the doctrine of Manifest Destiny, acquiring territories through wars (e.g., Mexican-American War) and purchases (e.g., Louisiana Purchase, Alaska Purchase), leading to the displacement and subjugation of Native American populations.
Contraction:
Ottoman Empire: Throughout the Industrial Revolution, the Ottoman Empire saw a significant contraction of its territory. It faced continuous loss of lands due to nationalist movements in the Balkans and the Middle East, coupled with military defeats and capitulations from the European powers.
Spanish Empire: Spain's imperial decline was marked by the loss of its remaining major colonies, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, after the Spanish-American War in 1898. It also lost its grip on its American colonies after King Charles IV was overthrown by the First French Empire in 1808, giving elites in those colonies room to declare independence.
Collapse:
Qing Dynasty (China): While not an empire collapse per se before WWI, the Qing Dynasty experienced significant internal strife and loss of influence, culminating in the 1911 Revolution. This period was marked by the inability to effectively manage internal rebellions (such as the Taiping and Boxer Rebellions) and the Opium Wars, leading to territorial concessions and port openings to foreign powers due to unequal treaties.
Mughal Empire (India): By the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the Mughal Empire was already significantly weakened due to Persian pillages on Delhi and the periphery, but it was formally dissolved by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, leading to the establishment of the British Raj.
What was common to industrialization everywhere, and in what ways did it vary from place to place?
Commonalities:
Technological Advancements: Introduction of new technologies and energy sources like coal and steam power was a hallmark everywhere.
Urbanization: Industrialization invariably led to the growth of cities as centers of manufacturing and commerce.
Social Changes: Class structures evolved with a decline in aristocracy and rise of a middle and working class.
Economic Growth: Boosted overall production and wealth, albeit often accompanied by stark inequalities.
Variations:
Role of the State: In countries like Russia and Japan, the state played a more direct role in promoting industrial growth, unlike in the U.S. and Britain where private enterprise led the way.
Labor Movements: The nature and success of labor movements varied, with some countries seeing more radical outcomes (e.g., Russia) compared to more moderate labor reforms in others like Britain and the U.S.
Cultural and Political Responses: Each region's cultural norms and political structures influenced how industrial changes were implemented and experienced by the population.