Semester AP Biology Final Exam

chi square analysis

1. use equation

2. add results together

3. compare results to critical numbers (look at degree and do one less)

4. confirm or deny null hypothesis (confirm is under, deny is over)

positive loop

supplements for something that the body needs

ex: stops a cut from bleeding

negative loop

bringing the body back to normal

ex: childbirth, body temperature

polar covalent bonds

• stronger than hydrogen bonds

• H+ and O- are being bonded together within the molecule

hydrogen bonds

• not as strong as covalent bonds

• bonds two molecules together

hydroxyl group

carboxyl group

amino group

anabolic reaction

• smaller molecule to bigger (poly + poly » monomer)

• ex: dehydration synthase

  • two molecules join and H2O is lost

catabolic reaction

• bigger molecule to small (monomer + H2O » poly + poly)

• ex: hydrolysis

  • one molecule breaks down into two molecules using H2O

monomer

building block of a polymer

ex. of carbohydrates

starchs, glycogen, cellulose, chitin

what is a monosaccharide and polysaccharide

• monosaccharide: simplest carb

• disaccharide: polymer

• polysacchardie: polymers joined together to create a carb, monomer

what is the carbohydrates role in photosynthesis?

• the formation of the carbohydrates is a chemical way that the plant’s store food

• provide energy for the plants

• help the plant with storage

what are lipids?

• made of C, H, O

• do not dissolve good in water

• ex: phospholipids: make up the majority of the cell membrane

what are the monomers and polymers of lipids?

monomer: glycerol and fatty acids

polymer: phospholipids and triglycerides

what is the function of a lipid?

to help with moving and storing energy

what is the structure of a lipid?

• long chains for strong energy, the fats store this energy usually

• phospolipids: hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail

  • causes them to form membranes

• saturated fats: no C-C double bonds

  • found in meat and unhealthy

• unsaturated fats: one or more C-C double bonds

  • found in plants and healthier

what are the monomer and polymer of proteins?

monomer: amino acids

polymer: peptide chains, proteins

what is the function of proteins?

enzymes, structure, immunity, transport, storage, hormones

what is a polypeptide chain?

• formed through dehydration synthesis

• it is what folds into a protein

what are the levels of protein structure?

primary: sequence of the polypeptide chain

• dictates the way the protein will fold

secondary: helix or pleated sheets (flat)

• prepares the chain for further folding

tertiary: bonding between R- groups

• provides proteins with their specific shape

quaternary: two or more polypeptides that form a protein

• arrangement of multiple proteins

what is a peptide bond?

a bond that connects to amino acids

recognize the peptide bond

how do the properties of amino acids change the final protein structure?

• the chemical properties of each amino acid is what gives the protein its structure at the secondary level

• sickle cell: different amino acid bond that causes the protein to fold differently (structure), so the function of the protein is different

what is denaturing?

causes a protein to lose structure

• ex: pH change, temperature, environment

  • all of these things can causes a hydrogen bond to change

causes the protein to fold different at different levels

• different folding = different structure and function

how do you increase faster yield of products?

add more enzymes

what are the main components of the cell membrane?

phospolipids, proteins, carbohydrates

what are phospholipids in regards to the cell membrane?

• core of the cell membrane

• hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail

• barrier that prevents things from freely moving in and out

  • stuff can still get through by different transport mechanisms

what are proteins in regards to the cell membrane?

• integral and peripheral proteins

• transport proteins: act as channels or carriers to allow ions and nutrients to pass through without going through the bilayer

what are carbohydrates in regards to the cell membrane?

• usually attached to the proteins

• do not help with transport, but they help the cell selectively interacts with the environment

what are the components of the cell membranes role?

• allow cell to maintain stable internal environment by selectively permitting or blocking certain things from entering the cell

  • essential for the cells health and communication

what is diffusion?

• passive transport

• high concentration to low concentration

• does not require ATP

• small, nonpolar molecules go directly through the phospholipid bilayer

• does not need a helper

facilitated diffusion

• passive transport

• high concentration to low concentration with help from a protein

  • channel protein: form pores in the membrane allowing ions to go through

  • carrier protein: bind to specific molecule, change shape, transport across membrane

what is osmosis?

• facilitated diffusion of water using aquaporins

• H2O goes from high to low and needs a helper

• does not require energy

what is active transport?

• against gradient, low concentration to high concentration

• requires energy

• relies on protein pumps

  • ex: Na+ K+ pump

what is a Na+ K+ pump?

• moves Na+ ions out of the cell and K+ into the cell

• adds a phosphate and uses ATP

comparison chat between diffusion, facilitate diffusion, active transport

what is the concentration gradient?

• affects movement across the membrane depending on if the ion/molecule is moving with or against the gradient

  • some might need energy

  • the goal is to reach equilibrium

what is endocytosis?

• cell engulfs substances from the outside and encloses them inside the membrane in the vesicle

• organelles: plasma membrane, vesicles

• active transport

what is exocytosis?

• cell expels substances from inside the cell to the external environment by putting it into a vesicle that becomes the membrane

• organelles: plasma membrane, vesicles, golgi

• active transport

what is endosymbiotic theory?

• says that eukaryotic cells originated through a process in which ancestral counterparts were engulfed by cells forming a symbiotic relationship

• what was engulfed turned into organelles like the mitochondria and chloroplast

• shows evolution because both of the organelles are said to be from bacteria but how they help the cell

what is the 1st law of thermodynamics?

• energy can not be created or destroyed

what is the 2nd law of thermodynamics?

• each energy transfer/ transformation increases the randomness of the universe

how does the 1st law of thermodynamics relate to chemical equations and energy in ecosystems?

chemical: reactants have stored energy and during a reaction the energy is transformed

ecosystem: energy is converted

how does the 2nd law of thermodynamics relate to chemical equations and energy in ecosystems?

chemical: reactions increase randomness

ecosystem: loss of energy each transformation

what is an exergonic reaction?

• releasing energy to the surrounds

• reaction is spontaneous

what is an endergonic reaction?

• absorbing energy

• reaction is not spontaneous (needs energy)

what does ATP look like?

what is phosphorylation?

transfers one phosphate group to another molecule

• ATP uses enzyme to attach phosphate elsewhere

• ATP is now ADP

• the added phosphate gives the other molecule more reactive (more energy)

what are enzymes?

• speed up chemical reactions

• the substrate enters the active site and the enzyme changes shape accordingly

  • this is the reaction

• after the reaction, the product is released

• enzyme are specific (lock and key)

what is induced fit?

models how enzymes and substrates work

• the enzyme adapts its shape to hold the substrate tightly - reaction will be faster

what environmental conditions on enzyme function?

• temperature

  • low = slow; high = enzyme denatures

• pH

  • to low or high = bad enzyme bonds

what are competitive inhibitor?

• mimic the substrate and bind to the active site which prevents the enzyme from doing the reaction

• no reaction

non-competitive inhibitor

• binds to a different spot on the enzyme causing the enzyme to change the shape

• no reaction

allosteric reaction

• occurs when a regulatory molecule binds to a protein at one site and affects the protein’s function at another active site

  • can stimulate or inhibit the enzyme

copperativity

• forms of allosteric regulation that can amplify enzyme activity

feedback loops with enzymes (graph)

• once enough enzyme has been created the end product is supposed to go back up and stop it from making more products

• will be an allosteric or competitive inhibitor

  • end-product can go on the back of the enzyme and change its shape

oxidation

• loss of electrons

• often gains oxygen or loses hydrogen

• releases energy

reduction

• gain of electrons

• often loses oxygen or gains hydrogen

• requires or stores energy

how are oxidation and reduction similar?

• involve electrons moving and are involved in energy transfer during chemical reactions

• they depend on each other

what are the steps of cellular respiration?

glycolysis, kreb cycle, electron transport chain

what are the steps in photosynthesis?

light dependent reaction, calvin cycle

what is an autotroph?

• produce their own food

• use sunlight for energy

• performs photosynthesis and cellular respiration

• plants

what is a heterotroph?

• rely on consuming other organisms for food

• use organic molecules for energy

• only perform cellular respiration

• animals

how are heterotroph and autotroph similar?

• both are living

• both need gluclose

• both grow and reproduce