Key Concepts in Sociology and Social Theory

Social Location

The social context that influences an individual's perspectives and experiences.

Positivism

A philosophical theory stating that only scientific knowledge derived from empirical evidence is of real value.

Social Darwinism

A theory that applies the concept of natural selection to social, political, and economic issues.

Emile Durkheim & Social Integration

Durkheim's work focused on how societies maintain their coherence and integrity.

Basic/pure sociology

The study of sociology for the sake of knowledge without practical application.

Applied sociology

The application of sociological principles and methods to solve real-world problems.

Theory

A systematic explanation of an aspect of the social world.

Symbolic Interactionism

A sociological perspective that focuses on the meanings individuals attach to their social world.

Functional analysis

A framework for understanding society as a complex system whose parts work together.

Latent and manifest functions

Latent functions are unintended and unrecognized, while manifest functions are intended and recognized.

Conflict Theory

A theory that views society as composed of groups competing for scarce resources.

Hypothesis

A testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Variable

Any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted.

Operational Definition

A clear and precise definition of a variable that allows it to be measured.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of a measure across time and different contexts.

Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.

Sample

A subset of the population selected for study.

Random Sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Experiment

A research method in which variables are manipulated to observe effects.

Experiment group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used for comparison.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment.

Culture

The shared beliefs, values, and practices of a group.

Material Culture

Physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture.

Non-Material Culture

The intangible aspects of a culture, such as beliefs, values, and norms.

Culture shock

The feeling of disorientation experienced when encountering a different culture.

Ethnocentrism

The belief in the superiority of one's own culture.

Cultural Relativism

The practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of another culture.

Positive Sanction

A reward or positive reaction for following norms.

Negative Sanction

A punishment or negative reaction for violating norms.

Folkways

Norms that are not strictly enforced but are expected to be followed.

Mores

Norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance.

Taboo

A norm that is so strong that it brings extreme sanctions if violated.

Subculture

A group within a larger culture that has its own distinct values and norms.

Counterculture

A culture that actively rejects and opposes the dominant culture.

Paternalism

A policy or practice of restricting the freedoms and responsibilities of those subordinate to them.

Colonialism

The practice of acquiring control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.

Forced assimilation

The process by which a minority group is compelled to adopt the customs of a dominant culture.

Social environment

The immediate physical and social setting in which people live or in which something happens.

Socialization

The lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the values and norms of their culture.

Looking glass self

A concept that suggests a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others.

Mead and Role-Taking

George Herbert Mead's theory that emphasizes the importance of social interactions in the development of self.

Generalized Other

The common behavioral expectations of general society.

Agents of Socialization

The individuals, groups, and institutions that influence personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

Anticipatory Socialization

The process of learning and adopting the norms and values of a group one aspires to join.

Resocialization

The process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones.

Primary group

A small social group whose members share close, personal, and enduring relationships.

Secondary group

A larger and more impersonal group that is task-focused and time-limited.

In-group

A social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member.

Out-group

A social group with which an individual does not identify.

Reference group

A group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior.

Social network

A web of social relationships that connects individuals.

Dyad

A social group consisting of two members.

Triad

A social group consisting of three members.

Leader

An individual who influences a group of people towards the achievement of goals.

Instrumental leader

A leader who is task-oriented and focuses on the completion of goals.

Expressive leader

A leader who is concerned with the emotional and relational aspects of the group.

Authoritarian leader

A leader who makes decisions unilaterally and expects obedience.

Democratic leader

A leader who encourages group participation and input in decision-making.

Laissez-faire leader

A leader who takes a hands-off approach and allows group members to make decisions.

Groupthink

A phenomenon where the desire for harmony in a group results in irrational decision-making.

Deviance

Behavior that violates social norms.

Stigma

A mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person.

Social order

The arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society's members base their daily lives.

Genetic predisposition

An increased likelihood of developing a particular disease based on a person's genetic makeup.

Differential Association theory

A theory that suggests deviance is learned behavior through interactions with others.

Control theory

A theory that posits that deviance occurs when a person's ties to society are weakened.

Labeling theory

A theory that suggests that the labels people are given affect their behavior.

Medicalization

The process by which non-medical problems become defined and treated as medical issues.

Social mobility

The ability to move up or down the social hierarchy.

Culture of poverty

A concept that describes the values and behaviors that arise in impoverished communities.

Meritocracy

A system in which advancement is based on individual ability or achievement.

Means of production

The facilities and resources for producing goods.

Social Class

A division of a society based on social and economic status.

Status consistency

The degree to which an individual's social status is the same across different dimensions.

Status inconsistency

The condition of having different levels of status in different categories.

Sex

The biological distinction between males and females.

Gender

The social and cultural roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male or female.

Patriarchy

A social system in which men hold primary power.

Feminism

A movement advocating for women's rights and equality.

Glass ceiling

An invisible barrier that prevents women and minorities from advancing in the workplace.

Glass escalator

The phenomenon where men in female-dominated professions rise faster than their female counterparts.

Hegemonic masculinity

The dominant form of masculinity that is culturally exalted.

Sexual harassment

Unwanted sexual advances or behavior in the workplace or other settings.

Gender as a process, stratification system & institution

The understanding of gender as a social construct that shapes social relations and hierarchies.

Race

A social construct used to categorize people based on physical characteristics.

Ethnicity

A shared cultural heritage or identity based on common ancestry, language, or culture.

Discrimination

Unjust treatment of different categories of people, often based on race, age, or sex.

Racism

Prejudice or discrimination against individuals based on their race.

Prejudice

A preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience.

Contact theory

The idea that intergroup contact can reduce prejudice.

Individual discrimination

Discrimination that occurs at the individual level.

Institution discrimination

Discrimination that is embedded in the policies and practices of institutions.

Selective perception

The process by which individuals perceive what they want to in media messages.

Assimilation

The process by which individuals or groups adopt the culture of another group.

Multiculturalism

A perspective that recognizes and values diverse cultural backgrounds.