Psychology Test #3

How people think

The Nature of though or the processes involved in thinking

How well people think

Cariations among people in thinking ability

Mental Images

Mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality (helpful for motor memory)

Concepts

Ideas that represent a class or group of objects, events, or activities that share common characteristics or attributes. They allow for the identification of new objects and events that may fit the concept.

Formal Concepts

Concepts formed by learning the specific rules or features that define it, many acquired in school (Math rules)

Natural Concepts

Concepts formed as a result of people’s experiences in the real world, most of the concepts we form, by a general set of features (birds)

Prototype

An example that closely matches the defining characteristics (or common features) of a concept

Developing prototypes

1. The exposure a person has to objects in a category

2. The knowledge a person has about objects in a category

3. The culture of a person

Decision Making

Process of evaluation alternatives and choosing among them (no defined goal)

Problem Solving

The thoughts and actions required to achieve a certain goal

Trial and Error

One possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found (mechanical solution)

Algorithms

Very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving problems always results in the correct answer (mathematical formulas)

Heuristic

An educated guess based on prior experiences that help narrow down the possible solutions for a problem (“Rule of thumb”)

Representative Heuristics

Tendency to judge an event by the extent to which it resembles the typical case (does that guy look like a “frat boy”)

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is to think of related examples

Insight

Sudden perception of a solution to a problem, anticipating the solution is correct (“A-ha!”)

Functional Fixedness

Thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions (plier pendulum)

Mental Set

The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs (Horoscope)

Creativity

The ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable

Convergent Thinking

Type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer by using previous knowledge and logic (black and white thinking)

Divergent Thinking

Type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (going outside the box in the 9 dot question)

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, acquire knowledge, and use resources in adapting to new situations or problem solving

Reification

Viewing an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing

Spearmen’s Theory

g factor and s factor

g factor

The ability to reason and solve problems (general knowlege)

s factor

The ability to excel in certain areas (specific intelligence)

Fluid intelligence

Natural ability to solve problems, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Crystallized intelligence

Knowledge and abilities acquired through experiences (ex. vocabulary)

Gardner’s Theory

Multiple intelligences

Triarchic Theory

Sternberg claims there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical

Analytical intelligence

The ability to break problems down into component parts, higher preformance on strandardized tests (High g)

Creative intelligence

The ability to deal with new and different concepts, how well can you cope with a new task? (“quick learner”)

Practical intelligence

The ability to use information to get along in life and become successful, size up situations and act accordingly (“Street Smarts”)

Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions

Reliability

Produce similar scores from one test time to the next (reproducibility)

Validity

How well a test measures what it is supposed to measure

Standardization

Administering the rest to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison

IQ

Intelligence quotient, the goal: help those identified as potentially having trouble in school

IQ equation

(Mental age / chronological age) x 100

Average intelligence

100 because mental age and chronological age will be equal

IQ now

Age-based distribution of scores instead of a ratio (comparing you to your peers)

Standard Deviation

15

Intellectually Disability

Below 70 and significantly impaired in two or more everyday abilities (2 standard deviations below the mean)

Gifted

Above 130 (2 standard deviations above the mean)

Flynn Effect

1/3 point increase per year (about 3 points per decade)

Language

An open and symbolic communication system that has rules of grammar and allows its users to express abstract ideas

Open

Free to change

Symbolic

No connection between a sound and the meaning of idea with associated with it

Language production

Our ability to speak or otherwise use language to send information

Language comprehension

The ability to understand language

Phonology

The structure of sound that can be used to produce words in a language

Phonemes (Babbling)

The smallest distinctive sound unit in a spoken language, or basic building blocks of speech sound (bat has three phonemes: B - A - T)

Morphemes

The smallest unit of meaning in a language (Previewed = pre - view - ed)

Grammar

A system of rules that governs the structure and use of language enables us to communicate with and understand others

Semantics

Rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences

Syntax

The rules for ordering words into grammatically correct (sensible) sentences

Pragmatics

The practical aspects of communicating with others, or social “niceties” of language (manners)

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Vygotsky)

The theory that the language a person speaks largely determines the nature of that person’s thoughts

Cognitive Universalism (Piaget)

The theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language

Clinical Neuropsychology

A specialization within clinical psychology that focuses on brain behavior relationships

Neuropsychologists Test

Intelligence, language, memory, judgment, and decision making

Developmental Psychology

The study of patterns of growth and change occurring throughout life (physical, cognitive, moral, social)

Influences on development

Biological, Psychological, and Social-cultural

Nature/Nurture

How do genetic inheritance (nature) and experience (nurture) influence our development?

Continuity/Stage

Is development a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages?

Stability/Change

Do our early personality traits persist throughout life, or do we become different persons as we age?

Cross Sectional

Differences: research ONLY in 2016 different people in each group

Cross Sequential

Difference and Change: research in 2016 and 2021 different people in each group, each group is tested twice

Longitudinal

Change: research in 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2030… same people tested multiple times

Genetics

The science of inherited traits

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

Molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism

Gene

Section of DNA having a certain pattern of chemical elements

Dominant Genes

Genes that actively control the expression of a trait

Recessive Genes

Genes that onlt influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene

Germinal Stage

First 2 weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote becomes a mass of cells, moves down the uterus, and implants in the lining

In the first week

Zygote is rapidly diving, creating 100 cells or more that continue to become diverse

14 days

Zygote become an embryo

Embryonic Stage

The periods from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which major systems, organs, and structures of the body develop

End of 8 weeks

The embryo is about 1 inch long, weighs about 1/7 of an ounce, and has primitive eyes, nose, ears, lips, teeth, little arms and legs, hand, feet, fingers, toes, as well as a beating heart

Fetal Stage

The time from about 8 weeks after conception until birth of the baby, organs become functional, muscles and bones form (kicking)

Teratogens

Drugs, chemicals, or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus

Critical Periods

Times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of an infant

Nutrition

Severe malnutrition increases the risk of birth complications and neurological deficits

Stress and Emotion

Anxiety and depression in pregnant women can have long-lasting effect on the child

Infant Reflexes

Grasping, Moro (startle), Rooting, Stepping, and Sucking

Occurring about 2-4 months

Raising of the head and chest

Occurring about 2-5 months

Rolling over

Occurring about 4-6 months

Sitting up with support

Occurring about 6-7 months

Sitting up without support

Occurring about 7-8 months

Crawling

Occurring between 8 to 18 months

Walking

Sensory Development

The senses, except for vision are fairly well developed at birth

Brain Development and Synaptic Pruning

Elimination of synapses (dendrites and axons) that occurs from infancy and ends prior to sexual maturation (use it or loose it)

Piaget’s Theory

He saw children as little scientist exploring their world, and learning as a way of adapting to their environment

Schemas

Mental concepts formed by children as they experience new situations and events

Assimilation

Fitting new objects, events, ect. into an existing schema

Accommodation

Modifying a schema to fit new events, object, etc.

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

Understand the world through senses and motor actions

Object permanence

An object exists even when it is not in sight (no more peek-a-boo)