biology midterm thingies

bio bio I hate bio. This has as much as I can put into it from notes from others and some of my own.

Carbohydrates: Function

Immediate sources of energy

Carbohydrates: Elements

C, H, O

Carbohydrates: Monomer

Monosaccharide - C₆H₁₂O₆

Carbohydrates: Polymer

Disaccharide/Polysaccharide

Carbohydrates: Functional Group

Hydroxyl

Carbohydrates: Identifying Characteristics

CH₂O formula

Carbohydrates: Type of Bond

Glycosidic Bond

Lipids: Function

Store energy, makes up cell membrane, chemical messengers

Lipids: Elements

C, H, O

Lipids: Monomers

Fatty acid and glycerol

Lipids: Polymer

Diglycerides and triglycerides

Lipids: Functional Groups

Hydroxyl (Glycerol) and Carboxyl (Fatty Acids)

Lipids: Identifying Characteristics

Nonpolar and does not dissolve in water

Lipids: Type of Bond

Ester Bonds

Lipids: Unsaturated

One or more double bonds between two carbons

Lipids: Saturated

Maximum number of hydrogens (All single bonds between carbons)

What are lipids found in??

Oil, Fat, Wax

Proteins: Function

Carry out/catalyze chemical reactions, transport molecules, fight diseases, restore/repair tissue, make up body parts

Proteins: Elements

C, H, O, N, Sometimes S

Proteins: Monomers

Amino Acid

Proteins: Polymers

Polypeptide

Proteins: Functional Groups

Amino group and Carboxyl Group

Proteins: Identifying Characteristics

Nitrogen is present

What are proteins found in??

Meat, eggs, and beans

Protein: Type of Bond

Peptide Bonds

Nucleic Acid: Function

Store and transmits genetic information

Nucleic Acid: Elements

C, H, O, N, P

Nucleic Acid: Monomers

Nucleotides

Nucleic Acid: Polymers

Nucleic Acid (DNA & RNA)

Nucleic Acid: Functional Group

Phosphate group, Amino group, hydroxyl group

Nucleic Acid: Identifying Characteristics

Phosphate group, 5 carbon rings, and nitrogen in the rings

Where are Nucleic Acids found??

Cells

Nucleic Acid: Type of bond

Posphodiester Bond

Nucleic Acid: Nitrogenous bases

Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil

Meaning of “Bio”

Living

Meaning of “Molecule”

Combination of atoms

What do all organic biomolecules have??

C-H Bonds

What are the four biomolecules?

Lipids, Carbohydrates, Nucleic Acid, and Proteins

Characteristics of Life

Grow and Develop, use energy, reproduce, composed of cells, respond to environment, adapt to change.

How many valence electrons does Carbon have, and how many more to be stable?

Carbon has 4 valence electrons and needs 6 more to be stable

What are the four Functional Groups?

Hydroxyl, Carboxyl, Amino Group, Phosphate Group

What are Monomers?

Smaller units of building blocks

What are Polymers?

Large molecules made by joined monomers

What is Polymerization?

The process of monomers becoming polymers

What is Dehydration Synthesis?

When molecules bond through the removal of water

On molecule gets -OH removed and the other has -H removed

What is Hydrolysis?

A molecule is broken through the addition of water.

H₂O is added to separate.

What are Enzymes?

An Organic catalyst, usually a protein, that speeds up reactions in cells due to its particular shape

What is a Catalyst?

A substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed

What is a Substrate?

The reactant molecule that an enzyme works on

What is the Active Site?

The part of an enzyme where the substrate binds

How do enzymes speed up reactions?

They lower the activation energy of a reaction (the amount of energy required for a reaction to occur)

They bind the substrate in a way that allows the reaction to happen more efficiently

Factors that affect enzyme activity:

• Temperature

• pH levels

• Concentration

Sub-optimal conditions can cause the Enzyme to lose the ability to bind with a substrate

Do Enzymes prefer higher or lower temperatures?

Generally higher temperatures, but too high temperatures can cause the enzyme to denature

What happens when an Enzyme denatures??

The enzyme’s active site loses its specific shape that allows it to bind to substrates

How does Enzyme Concentration affect reaction rates??

Generally, it will speed up the reaction but if there are too many enzymes and not enough substrate, the reaction rate will not really be affected.

Enzyme Inhibitors

Enzyme inhibitors bind to enzymes to decrease activity

Noncompetitive Inhibitor:

Inhibitor binds to the enzyme at a place other than the active site. This changes the enzyme so it is no longer able to bind to substrates

Competitive inhibition:

Inhibitor and substrate compete for the same active site of an enzyme, slowing the amount of product produced.

Phospholipid Bilayer:

The phospholipids in a cell membrane

The head of the phospholipid is hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic

Channel Proteins:

Trans-membrane proteins that are hydrophilic which allows specific Ions and molecules to pass through by facilitated diffusion

Carrier Proteins:

Trans-Membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of specific molecules

Diffusion:

Movement of a molecule from a high concentration area to a low concentration area

Concentration gradient:

The difference in concentration in two areas

Facilitated Diffusion:

A type of passive transport that moves large or charged molecules from high to low concentration using carrier or channel proteins but not using energy

Aquaporin:

Proteins that form pores in cell membranes to facilitate rapid passage of water

Osmosis

The movement of solvent (usually water) across a semipermeable membrane from a low solute concentration to a high solute concentration

Isotonic Solution:

Some solute concentration in a cell, no movement

Hypotonic solution

More solvent and less solute in a solution than another solution

Hypertonic solution

Higher solute concentration than another solution

Turgor Pressure:

Outward pressure by a fluid inside a plant cell against its own cell wall

Active Transport:

Movement of Ions and Molecules using enzymes and energy

Sodium-Potassium Pump:

A membrane protein that uses ATP energy to move three sodium Ions and two potassium ions against their concentration gradients

Bulk Transport:

Moving large substances across a cell membrane using membrane bound vesicles

Endocytosis:

Active transport where cell membranes engulfs external substances and forms vesicles

Exocytosis:

When a cell expels substances out of the cell by fusing a vesicle to the plasma membrane

Phagocytosis

When a cell “eats” large particles to consume and digest them

Pinocytosis:

A type of endocytosis where a cell takes in small amounts of extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes by forming a vesicle

Homeostasis:

Biological process of maintaining a stable internal environment against external forces

Negative Feedback:

When a body counteracts changes to maintain Homeostasis

Positive Feedback

A process that amplifies an initial stimulus

What is ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate

Usable energy for all cells

• Active transport

• Muscle Contraction

• Cell signaling

What does the cell do when it needs energy from ATP?

The bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups on ATP is broken

• Energy for cells is released

• ADP is produced

How is ATP replenished?

Cells use cell respiration to reattach a phosphate group to ADP turning it into ATP

Where do cells get the energy required to turn ADP into ATP?

Converting glucose into energy using Aerobic or Anaerobic cellular respiration

Cellular Respiration Redox reaction:

C₆H₁₂O₂ + O₂ = 6CO₂ + 6H₂O

What do NADH and FADH₂ do?

They carry electrons and release them in the last step of Cellular Respiration

They turn into FAD and NAD+ after they lose their electron (Oxidized)

Four Mitochondrial Structures:

• Outer Membrane

  • Phospholipid Bilayer, regulates what enters and exits the cell

• Inner Membrane

  • Contains protein channels for H+ Ions and ATP production, freely permeable to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water

  • Cristae: Folds of inner membrane, increases surface area between matrix and membrae

• Intermembrane space

  • Region between the inner membrane and outer, important for oxidative phosphorylation

• Matrix

  • Innermost region of the mitochondria, location of prep reactions and Krebs cycle

Glycolysis (Both Anaerobic and Aerobic Resp)

• Occurs in cytoplasm

• Energy investment steps

  • 2 ATP are used to convert glucose into molecules of G3P

• Energy harvesting steps

  • G3P is oxidized, creating NADH and 2ATP

  • Ending molecule is pyruvate

  • Happens 2X (once for each G3P)

Inputs: Glucose, 2 NAD+, 2 ATP

Outputs: 2 Pyruvate, 2 NADH, 2 ATP

Fermentation (Anaerobic Resp)

• In animal cells and some bacteria cells

  • Pyruvate is reduced to form lactic acid

  • NADH is converted to NAD+ to be reused in glycolysis

• In yeast, plants, and some bacteria cells:

  • Pyruvate is reduced to form alcohol and CO₂

  • NADH is converted to NAD+ to be reused in glycolysis

• Fermentation requires NO extra ATP

• Main goal is to replenish NAD+for glycolysis

Prep Reactions/Pyruvate Oxidation (Aerobic Resp)

• Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria

• Each pyruvate molecule (2) from glycolysis is oxidized, producing NADH and CO₂

• The remaining acetlyl group attaches to the input of coenzyme A (COA) to produce acetyl-COA

• Outputs of this step are used as inputs in the remaining steps

Inputs: 2 pyruvate, 2 COA, 2 NAD+

Outputs: 2 acetyl-COA, 2 NADH, 2 CO₂

Krebs Cycle (Aerobic Resp)

• Occurs in matrix of mitochondria

• Acetyl-COA joins with oxaleacetate (a 4-carbon molecule) to form citric acid

• Citric acid is broken down in several steps releasing 2 CO₂, 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, and 1 ATP

• Oxaleacetate is regenerated, ready to join with another acetyl-COA so the cycle can repeat

• The Krebs Cycle happens 2X per Glucose molecule

• Main goal is to genereate NADH and FADH₂ which carry high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC)

Inputs: 2 acetyl-CoA, 6 NAD+, 2 FAD, 2 ADP, oxaloacetate

Outputs: 4 CO₂, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂, 2 ATP, oxaloacetate

ETC and Chemiosmosis

• Occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria

• NADH and FADH₂ give their electrons to protein complexes embedded in the inner membrane

• As electrons move from one protein to another, they release energy

• Energy is used to pump protons (H+ ions) across the membrane from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient

• At the end of the chain, electrons combine with oxygen and H+ ions to form water

• Chemiosmosis: The built up H+ ions flow back through an enzyme called ATP synthase, producing high amounts of ATP

Inputs: 2 FADH₂, 10 NADH, 32-34 ADP, 6 O₂

Outputs: 6 H₂O, 10 NAD+, 2 FAD, 32-34 ATP

Photosynthesis:

The process in which light energy is converted into chemical energy

Photosynthesis redox reaction

6CO₂ + 6H₂O = C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Autotrophs

Organisms that can make their own organic compounds for food

Photoautotrophs

Organisms that do photosynthesis

Heterotrophs

Organisms that cannot make their own organic molecules and have to consume other organisms for food

Effects of Photosynthesis on Atmosphere

Generates Oxygen and removes carbon dioxide

Where does photosynthesis occur??

Palisade mesophyll cells are the primary site of photosynthesis and spongy mesophyll has air spaces for gas exchanges

Vascular Tissues:

• Xylem

  • Vascular tissue in plants that transport water from the roots up to the leaves and other parts of the plant

  • Xy to the Sky!

• Ploem

  • Vascular tissue in plants that transport sugars and other nutrients from where they are made (usually in leaves) to other parts of the plant

  • Phlo to the floor