unit 4: social psychology and learning

dispositional attribution

internal, when you explain someone’s behavior by their personality, traits, or internal characteristics

example: if someone cuts in line and you think “wow, they’re so rude”, you’re assuming they act that way because of their personality

situational attribution

external, when you explain someone’s behavior based on the situation or environment they’re in

example: if someone cuts in line and you think "maybe they’re in a hurry," you’re attributing their behavior to external circumstances, not who they are

attribution theory

explains how people try to understand the causes of behavior due to dispositional or situational attributions

self-serving bias

the tendency to credit yourself for your successes but blame external factors when they don’t

example: if you get an A on a test, you say “i’m smart”, if you fail, you say “the test was unfair”

actor-observer bias

the tendency to explain our own behavior using situational attributions, but explain other people’s behavior using dispositional attributions

example: if you trip, you might think it was because the ground was uneven, but if someone else trips, you might think they are clumsy

fundamental attribution error (FAE)

the tendency to overemphasize the role of personal traits and underestimate the impact of the situation when explaining someone else’s behavior

example: if a coworker misses a deadline, you might think they are lazy instead of considering external pressures they faced

F.A.E → Forget About Environment

explanatory style

the way in which someone interprets and explains events in their life, often influencing their emotions and behaviors. it can be optimistic or pessimistic

optimistic explanatory style

you explain bad events as temporary problems, putting the blame on external factors and good events as due to your abilities or traits (basically situational attributes)

example: if you do well on an exam, you attribute it to your intelligence, but if you fail, you consider it a difficult test

pessimistic explanatory style

you explain bad events as permanent problems, attributing them to your own abilities or traits, while good events are seen as luck or outside factors (basically dispositional attributes)

example: you didn’t win the volleyball game, and you think it's because you're bad at sports, while if you win a game, you might think it was merely luck.

locus of control

who or what you believe controls your life — you (internal) or outside forces (external)

external locus of control

you believe that outside factors like luck, fate, or other people are in charge of the outcomes in your own life

can lead to the individual to develop learned helplessness since they assume there’s nothing they can do

example: a student who fails a test might say “i failed because my teacher hates me and they’ll let me pass”

internal locus of control

you believe that your own actions and decisions are the main factors that determine the outcomes in your life

can lead to the person having higher self-efficacy and reduced feelings of helplessness

example: a student who fails a test might say “i just need to adjust my study habits and prepare more for the next test”

person perception

the process of forming impressions and judgements about other people and sometimes even themselves

mere exposure effect

the idea that the more you’re exposed to something, the more you tend to like it

example: at first, you didn’t like sabrina’s new song but after hearing it on the radio everyday, you start to enjoy it

self-fulfilling prophecy

when a person’s expectations influence their behavior in a way that causes those expectations to come true

example: you believe you’ll fail the ap exam, so you don’t study, so then you fail. your belief caused behavior that fulfilled the outcome

social comparison

when you compare yourself to others to judge your own abilities, appearance, or situation

upward social comparison

when you compare yourself to someone you think is better than you in some way

example: you look at a classmate who always gets straight A’s and feel like you’re not smart enough

downward social comparison

when you compare yourself to someone who you think is doing worse than you in some way

example: you didn’t do great on a test, but you feel better when you see that someone else failed

relative deprivation

the feeling that you’re worse off compared to others, even if your situation hasn’t changed

example: you’re happy with your phone until you see your friends have the newer one and suddenly feel like yours isn’t good enough

(friends→ reference group= people you compare yourself to)

explicit attitudes

attitudes we are aware of and can clearly express

example: you openly say you support recycling and make sure to separate your trash at home

implicit attitudes

attitudes that are unconscious, oftentimes the individual may not even realize they hold these beliefs

example: you say you’re not scared of dogs, but your body tenses up every time one walks by even though you don't notice it

just-world phenomenon

the belief that people get what they deserve and things are the way they are for a reason

victim-blaming

the idea that an individual’s misfortunes are their own fault

example: someone who was robbed is told, “you shouldn’t have been out so late"

out-group homogeneity bias

the tendency to see people from other groups as all the same

leads to overgeneralization, stereotypes, and discrimination

example: you assume that all people from a different school are unfriendly because you only know a few people from there, even though you haven’t met everyone

in-group bias

the tendency to favor and support people in our own group while those outside of it get hate

example: you feel happy when angie met the kalogeras because she’s a part of your group, but you don’t care as much about other people meeting them

ethnocentrism

the idea that one’s own culture or ethnic group is superior to others

cultural relativism

when an individual views and judges another culture by its own standards, showing that no culture is superior to another (opposite of ethnocentrism)

belief perseverance

the tendency to maintain a belief despite new information or evidence that clearly contradicts it

example: you still believe that shein is the best, even after hearing several reviews saying it's not as good as other brands

confirmation bias

the tendency to search for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms your preexisting beliefs or opinions

example: you focus on news that supports your political views while ignoring opposing perspectives

stereotypes

generalized beliefs about a group of people

prejudiced attitudes

preconceived negative attitudes toward a group and its members

example: assuming someone isn’t good at a job just because of their gender, even though you’ve never worked with them directly

discriminatory behavior

unfair treatment of individuals based on their group

example: refusing to hire someone because of their race, even though they are qualified for the job

explicit prejudice

the conscious and openly expressed negative attitudes or beliefs toward a group of people

example: openly saying that you don’t like a certain group of people based on their race or religion

implicit prejudice

unconscious negative attitudes or beliefs toward a group of people that influence behavior without intentional awareness

example: you don’t realize you’re giving more attention to one group of people over another in a social setting, even though you consciously believe in treating everyone equally

cognitive dissonance

the mental discomfort or tension that comes when an individual has two conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors

example: you know smoking is bad for your health but continue to smoke, which creates discomfort. to ease the tension, you might convince yourself that smoking isn’t as harmful as people say.

social norms

unwritten rules and expectations that guide people in a society

example: holding a door for someone behind us

conformity

the tendency to adjust your behavior, beliefs, or attitudes to match those of a group or social norm

example: you start wearing the same style of clothing as your friends because everyone else in your group is wearing it

group size

you’re more likely to follow the majority opinion in a larger group, even if you disagree, because of the pressure to conform

group cohesion

a sense of belonging to the group, or feels accepted by the group increases the chance that they will conform to the group

authority

individuals are more likely to conform to situations or groups that have individuals with a higher status or authority figure in them

cultural factors

if individual comes from a culture that emphasizes supporting and promoting the group, family, or society over the individual, they are more likely to conform to group norms and expectations

individualistic culture

emphasizes the identity of a person and resists conformity to group norms and expectations, prioritizing personal goals over group goals

multiculturalism

where multiple cultural groups coexist within a society

obedience

how individuals respond to authority figures

dissent

expressing disagreement with the group

example: you’re in a friend group that wants to skip school, but you speak up and say it’s a bad idea, even though everyone else agrees with it

social influence theory

examines how and why people are persuaded by others

contains normative and informational influences

normative social influence (influence theory)

a person’s desire to be liked and accepted by a group

example: your friends wanna go out to eat and you go with the group’s decision even though you want to go to home

informational social influence (influence theory)

when individuals conform because they believe others have more accurate information

example: doing a kahoot and choosing what the smart kids around you chose because you assume they know the right answer

elaboration likelihood model

explains how people are persuaded through either deep thinking (central route) or superficial cues (peripheral route)

central route to persuasion

uses facts to persuade someone

takes more time and elaboration

peripheral route to persuasion

uses emotions to persuade someone

takes less time and focuses on quick thinking

halo effect

a cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about them

example: you might see a physically beautiful person and assume they are generous, smart, or trustworthy

foot-in-the-door technique

when a small request is first made, and once agreed, a larger request is made

example: a salesperson asks you to take a free sample first, and later asks you to buy the full product

door-in-the-face technique

when a large request that is likely to be rejected is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request

example: a charity worker asks for a $100 donation, knowing you'll likely say no, then asks for a $5 donation

group polarization

the tendency for individuals opinions, thoughts, and/or actions to become more extreme in a group setting

example: a group of friends discussing politics may end up with more extreme opinions after sharing their views, compared to when they discussed the topic individually

groupthink

where the group priorities harmony and consensus (agreement) over critical evaluation, often leading to poor decision-making to occur

example: a team agrees on a plan without considering all the risks, simply to avoid disagreement, even though some members have concerns

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility when part of a group, often due to feeling more anonymous in the group

example: someone who would never normally push strangers might do so during a large concert crowd because they feel anonymous

diffusion of responsibility

when an individual feels less accountable and responsible for taking action or helping in situations where others are present

example: in a crowded area, someone might not help a person who has fallen because they assume someone else will step in

social loafing

when individuals are in groups, they end up trying less since they rely on others to do the work

social facilitation

when a group of people are together they start to perform better due to being observed by others

example: a runner might run faster during a race with spectators cheering them on than when they are practicing alone

social impairement

when performing a task becomes harder because you're being watched by others

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs, opinions, or behaviors

example: you believe that most people enjoy watching the same TV shows as you do, even though not everyone shares that interest

superordinate goals

goals that require the cooperation of two or more people or groups to achieve, often reducing conflict

example: two rival sports teams working together to organize a charity event, aiming for a common goal that benefits both groups

social traps

situations where individuals or groups act in their own self-interest, but ultimately harm themselves or the group

example: people overfishing a lake for personal gain, leading to the depletion of fish for everyone in the future

industrial-organizational (I/O)

psychologists who study how people perform in the workplace, manages the employers → hired/fired, promotions, training

altruistic act (alturism)

when an individual does a selfless act for the well being of others, without expecting any personal gain or reward

social responsibility norm

expectation that people will help others who are in need, especially when they are not able to repay the help

example: helping an elderly person carry groceries even though they can't repay you

social reciprocity norm

an expectation that people have when doing something for someone else

example: if a friend helps you cheat for an exam, you may feel motivated to return the favor by helping them with something they need later on

bystander effect

the tendency for people to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present

the example of diffusion of responsibility

psychodynamic perspective

focuses on how unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories influence behavior, often shaped by early childhood experiences

denial

a defense mechanism in which a person refuses to accept reality or facts to avoid facing uncomfortable emotions or situations

displacement

a defense mechanism where you place your anger on someone else that’s less threatening

example: after a stressful day at work, someone comes home and yell at their family members, instead of confronting their boss

projection

a defense mechanism where you put your thoughts and feelings on someone else and say that’s what they believe

example: a person who is scared of riding a roller coaster might accuse others of being scared, even though they are the one feeling nervous

rationalization

a defense mechanism when you’re trying to make sense of what happened

example: get dumped and start looking for positives

reaction formation

a defense mechanism when an individual behaves in the opposite way of how they feel

regression

a defense mechanism where an individual regresses to something that makes them feel safe like a child when faced with stress or conflict

example: a teenager throws a tantrum like a child after being told they can’t go to a party

repression

a defense mechanism where a person unconsciously pushes painful or unwanted thoughts and memories out of awareness

sublimation

a defense mechanism where an individual turns their unacceptable impulses into something more socially acceptable

example: someone with aggressive urges starts punching a punching bag rather than a person

projective tests

a test that has open responses and does not limit the test taker to a select group of answers

example: inkblot test, a person describes what they see in random inkblots, which may reflect their inner feelings

objective tests

a test that has limited answers and seeks specific responses from test takers

example: myers-briggs personality test

unconditional positive regard

accepting and valuing someone without any conditions or requirements

self-concept

how a person sees and describes themselves, including their personality, skills, roles, and physical traits

who am i?

self-esteem

how positively a person feels about themselves

example: a student who feels good about themselves is more likely to speak up in class and try new things

self-actualizing tendency

the natural drive within a person to grow, improve, and reach their full potential

example of humanistic perspective

self-transcendence

when an individual goes beyond their own self-interests to pursue something larger than one’s self

example: someone who dedicates their time to helping others or working for a cause, like environmental protection or global peace, because they feel a deeper sense of purpose

q-sort technique (?)

used to asses a person’s self concept by having them sort descriptive statements into categories based on how well they describe them

congruence

the alignment between a person’s ideal self and actual self

social-cognitive theory (bandura)

the idea that people learn by observing others, imitating their behavior, and experiencing the consequences

reciprocal determinism

the idea that a person's behavior, personal factors (like thoughts and feelings), and the environment all influence each other in a continuous loop

a concept within social cognitive theory

example: a student who feels confident (personal factor) participates actively in class (behavior), which encourages a supportive teacher (environment), further boosting the student's confidence

self-efficacy

an individual’s belief in their ability to do a specific task

example: a student who feels confident they can ace a difficult exam demonstrates high self-efficacy

trait theories

the traits that form a person’s personality

big 5 theory of personality (OCEAN)

the theory that personality is made up of five main traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

openness

refers to imagination, creativity, and curiosity

conscientiousness

involves a person’s organization, dependability, discipline, and goal-directed goals

how reliable are you?

extraversion

describes how outgoing, energetic, and sociable a person is

agreeableness

describes how kind, cooperative, and trusthworthy someone is toward others

neuroticism

a person’s tendency to experience emotional stability and remain calm in stressful situations

high emotional stability → low neuroticism, so person is calm in stressful situations

low emotional stability → high neuroticism, so person is more and prone to negative emotions.

personality inventories

a specialized questionnaire that measures where they fall on each of the Big Five traits

factor analysis

a statistical method that identifies clusters of related questions, helping researchers determine which items on the test measure the same underlying trait

ensures the test is organized and accurate

instincts

fixed patterns of behavior that automatically kick in when triggered by certain stimuli