Comprehensive Review of Human Body Systems

What are the main components of the cardiovascular system?

The heart and blood vessels.

What is the primary function of the heart?

To pump blood throughout the body.

How do blood vessels facilitate nutrient and waste exchange?

Blood vessels transport blood to and from capillaries, where exchanges of nutrients for wastes occur with tissue cells.

Where does blood get refreshed in the body?

At the lungs (gas exchange), the digestive tract (nutrients enter blood), and the kidneys (wastes are removed from blood).

What role does the lymphatic system play in relation to the cardiovascular system?

It removes excess fluid from around the tissue and returns it to the cardiovascular system.

What are the three types of blood vessels?

Arteries, capillaries, and veins.

What is the function of arteries?

To move blood away from the heart.

What structural feature allows arteries to withstand blood pressure?

Arteries have the thickest walls.

What is the role of capillaries in the cardiovascular system?

To facilitate the exchange of substances between blood and tissue cells.

How do veins differ from arteries in terms of structure?

Veins have relatively weak walls and contain valves to keep blood flowing in one direction.

What is the structure of the heart?

The heart consists of a right and left side separated by a septum, each with an atrium and a ventricle.

What are the types of valves found in the heart?

Atrioventricular (AV) valves and semilunar valves.

What is the myocardium?

The tissue of the heart.

What surrounds the heart and provides protection?

The pericardium.

How does the heart supply itself with blood?

Through the coronary arteries.

What type of blood does the left side of the heart pump?

Oxygen-rich blood.

What type of blood returns to the right side of the heart?

Carbon dioxide-rich blood.

What is the significance of the thickness of the muscle walls in the ventricles?

The thickness varies depending on where they pump blood.

What can damage to arteries, such as in atherosclerosis, affect?

The organ's ability to perform its function and homeostatic conditions like blood pressure.

Why is hypertension referred to as the 'silent killer'?

It often has no symptoms but can lead to serious health problems.

What are the main components of blood?

Plasma and formed elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets).

What is the primary function of plasma?

To transport essential molecules to and from the cells.

What is the main component of plasma?

91% water.

What are the types of plasma proteins and their primary function?

Albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen; they maintain osmotic pressure and help regulate pH.

What are the functions of albumins, globulins, prothrombin, and fibrinogen in the blood?

Albumins transport other molecules, globulins function in immunity, and prothrombin and fibrinogen enable blood clotting.

What is the main function of red blood cells (erythrocytes)?

Red blood cells transport oxygen to the tissues and assist in carbon dioxide transport.

What is the role of hemoglobin in red blood cells?

Hemoglobin combines with oxygen for transport and assists in carbon dioxide transport.

How is red blood cell production regulated?

Red blood cell production is controlled by blood oxygen concentration; decreased oxygen levels stimulate the kidneys to produce erythropoietin (EPO), leading to increased RBC production.

What are some diseases associated with red blood cells?

Diseases include anemia (not enough hemoglobin), hemolysis (rupturing of RBCs), and sickle-cell disease (malformed RBCs).

What distinguishes white blood cells (leukocytes) from red blood cells?

White blood cells are larger, have a nucleus, and are translucent unless stained.

What are the primary organs of the lymphatic system?

The primary organs are red bone marrow (where blood cells are made and B cells mature) and the thymus (where T cells mature).

What are the secondary lymphatic organs?

The secondary lymphatic organs include the spleen, lymph nodes, and other organs containing lymphoid tissue, such as tonsils, Peyer's patches, and the appendix.

What is the function of the spleen in the lymphatic system?

The spleen cleanses blood of pathogens and debris.

What are the innate immune defenses?

Innate defenses include chemical barriers (like lysozyme), physical barriers, the inflammatory response, and the complement system.

What is the role of B cells in the adaptive immune response?

B cells respond to antigens, undergo clonal selection, and produce plasma cells and memory B cells.

What is the function of plasma cells?

Plasma cells secrete antibodies and are responsible for antibody-mediated immunity.

What happens to plasma cells after they secrete antibodies?

Plasma cells eventually undergo apoptosis after their function.

What triggers the production of erythropoietin (EPO)?

A decrease in blood oxygen concentration triggers the kidneys to produce erythropoietin.

What are the three specific nutrients necessary for the formation of red blood cells?

The three nutrients are iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid.

What are good food sources for iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid?

Iron: red meat, beans; Vitamin B12: meat, dairy; Folic acid: leafy greens, citrus fruits.

What is the potential danger of athletes abusing erythropoietin?

Abusing erythropoietin can lead to an excessive number of red blood cells, which may cause blood viscosity issues and increase the risk of heart failure.

What characteristics must artificial blood have to be useful?

Artificial blood must mimic the oxygen-carrying capacity and compatibility of normal blood.

How might artificial blood be engineered to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning?

Artificial blood could be designed to bind carbon monoxide less effectively than oxygen.

How does the use of artificial blood impact paternity testing?

The use of artificial blood may complicate paternity testing as blood groups could be less definitive.

What is the role of the inflammatory response in innate immunity?

The inflammatory response involves the action of phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages to combat pathogens.

What are the chemical signals involved in the inflammatory response?

Histamine and cytokines act as chemical signals during the inflammatory response.

What is the clonal selection model in relation to B cells?

The clonal selection model explains how activated B cells produce plasma cells and memory B cells after binding to a specific antigen.

What shape are most antibodies and how many binding sites do they have?

Most antibodies are Y-shaped molecules that have two binding sites for a specific antigen.

What are Memory B cells and what is their role in the immune system?

Memory B cells remain in the body and produce antibodies upon re-exposure to a specific antigen.

Why can Rh incompatibility be a serious issue during pregnancy?

Rh incompatibility can lead to the production of IgG antibodies by an Rh-negative mother against the Rh antigen of an Rh-positive fetus, potentially causing hemolytic disease.

What type of antibodies are produced against the A or B antigens in ABO blood group incompatibility?

The antibodies produced against the A or B antigens are usually IgM.

What is the purpose of antivenom for snake bites?

Antivenom contains antibodies that neutralize the venom and prevent death.

If a person is bitten by the same type of snake three years after receiving antivenom, what should they do?

They should receive another shot of antivenom, as the immunity gained from a shot of antibodies is temporary.

What are the main processes involved in digestion?

The main processes of digestion are ingestion, digestion, movement (peristalsis), absorption, and elimination.

What are the four layers of the GI tract?

The four layers of the GI tract are the mucosa, submucosa, serosa, and muscularis.

What disorder primarily affects the large intestine and is related to the muscularis layer?

Diverticulosis is a disorder that primarily affects the large intestine.

What role do teeth and saliva play in the mouth during digestion?

Teeth chew food while saliva, produced by salivary glands, contains salivary amylase for digesting starch.

What is the function of the epiglottis during swallowing?

The epiglottis covers the opening to the trachea (glottis) to prevent food from entering the airway.

How does food move from the esophagus to the stomach?

Food moves from the esophagus to the stomach through peristalsis.

What is heartburn and what causes it?

Heartburn occurs when the contents of the stomach enter the esophagus.

What is the primary function of the stomach in digestion?

The stomach expands, stores food, and churns it while mixing it with acidic gastric juices.

What are some eating disorders mentioned in the notes?

Eating disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge-eating disorder, and muscle dysmorphia.

What is osteoporosis and what causes it?

Osteoporosis is a disease caused by a mineral deficiency, specifically calcium.

What is the significance of vitamins in the body?

Vitamins are organic compounds that act as metabolic assistants.

What happens during vomiting?

During vomiting, the abdominal muscles and diaphragm propel food through the esophagus and out of the mouth.

What is the role of the salivary amylase in digestion?

Salivary amylase helps in digesting starch in the mouth.

How do the mouth and nose connect to the pharynx?

Both the mouth and the nose lead into the pharynx, which opens into the esophagus and trachea.

What is peristalsis?

Peristalsis is the movement of food through the digestive tract via coordinated muscle contractions.

What is the bolus and how is it formed?

A bolus is a mass of chewed food formed in the mouth by the action of the tongue.

What is the role of sphincters in the digestive system?

Sphincters control the movement of the bolus through the digestive tract.

What happens to excess creatine that is not used for muscle synthesis?

It is not utilized for muscle growth and may be excreted or converted to other compounds.

What types of foods should be avoided by individuals with celiac disease?

Foods containing gluten, such as wheat, barley, and rye.

Can nutrients from gluten-containing foods be obtained from other sources for those with celiac disease?

Yes, nutrients like vitamins and minerals can be obtained from gluten-free foods.

Why are fruits and vegetables labeled as gluten-free?

Because gluten is a protein found in certain grains, and these foods do not contain gluten.

What is the role of the respiratory system?

The respiratory system is responsible for ventilation, which includes the processes of inspiration and expiration.

What structures are involved in the upper respiratory tract?

The nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, and epiglottis.

What is the function of the epiglottis?

It blocks the entry of food into the lower respiratory tract.

What is the trachea lined with?

Goblet cells and ciliated cells.

What are alveoli and what is their function?

Alveoli are air sacs in the lungs surrounded by capillaries, and they facilitate gas exchange.

What is Boyle's Law in relation to breathing?

It describes the inverse relationship between pressure and volume of gas, affecting air movement in the lungs.

What happens during inspiration?

The diaphragm lowers, the rib cage expands, and air rushes into the lungs.

What occurs during expiration?

The diaphragm relaxes, the rib cage moves down, pressure in the lungs increases, and air is pushed out.

What is tidal volume?

The amount of air that is normally inhaled or exhaled in a single breath.

What is obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and its symptoms in children?

OSA is a condition where breathing is obstructed during sleep, causing symptoms like mouth breathing and difficulty focusing.

What anatomical features often contribute to obstructive sleep apnea in children?

Enlarged tonsils or adenoids.

What is the purpose of a smoker's cough?

It helps clear mucus and irritants from the airways.

Why are nonsmokers less likely to develop a chronic cough?

Nonsmokers are less exposed to the irritants and toxins that cause chronic respiratory issues.

Which muscles need conditioning for professional singers to control their breathing?

The diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

What causes a blue tint to the skin in someone who nearly drowned?

Lack of oxygen in the blood, leading to cyanosis.

How can exercise benefit individuals with asthma?

Exercise can improve lung function and overall respiratory health.

How might understanding the genetic basis of respiratory diseases aid in treatment development?

It can help researchers create personalized treatments tailored to individual genetic profiles.

What is the function of the glottis?

It is the opening between the vocal cords that allows air to pass through during breathing and phonation.

What is the role of the pleura in the lungs?

The pleura is a membrane that encloses each lung, providing a protective layer and facilitating lung expansion.

What is the significance of surfactant in the alveoli?

Surfactant reduces surface tension, preventing alveoli from collapsing.

What are the main functions of the urinary system?

The urinary system excretes nitrogenous wastes, maintains water-salt balance, maintains acid-base balance, and assists the endocrine system in hormone secretion.

What nitrogenous wastes are excreted by the urinary system?

Urea, uric acid, and creatinine.

What condition is caused by elevated levels of urea in the blood?

Uremia.

What condition is caused by increased levels of uric acid?

Gout.

What organs are involved in the urinary system?

Kidneys, renal arteries, renal veins, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

What is the role of the kidneys in the urinary system?

The kidneys produce urine.