Chemistry - macromolecules

3 types of disaccharides

• Maltose

• Lactose

• Sucrose

3 types of polysaccharides

• Starch 

• Cellulose

• Glycogen

What does hydrophilic mean

interact with water around it

How are 2-amino acids obtained

protein hydrolysis

Another term for 2-amino acids

alpha-amino acids

What connects glucose molecules

1-4 glycosidic links

what does hydrophobic mean

does not like water

What connects two amino acids

peptide bons

What forms a peptide bond

a nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen molecule 

Another term for peptide bond

amide bond

What does polarity of a amino acid depend on

side chain

What is condensation 

elimination of smaller molecule when functional groups react - usually water or an alcohol

how do you know if a molecule is polar

if it contains bonds other than CH or has a E0 value greater than 0.4

Difference between addition and condensation in polymerisation

condensation emits a water molecule 

Are CH bonds non polar or polar

non polar

If a molecule only has CH bonds, what polarity does it have

Non-polar

2 types of polymerisation

addition and condensation

What position of methyl group in a polymer is best for strength

isotactic as they can pack closer together

What is the difference between alpha and beta amino acids

alpha amino acid will have the amino group attached to the carbon adjacent to the carboxyl group. whereas a beta amino acid will have the amino group attached to the 3rd carbon

which amino acid is a beta amino acid

2

What is in all amino acids

alpha glucose

what differentiates all amino acids

their side chains

What is the primary structure

the order of amino acids to create the polypeptide chain

what is the secondary structure

folding of amino acids into either an alpha-helix or a beta-pleated sheet

what is the tertiary structure

three dimensional interactions with secondary structures

what is the quaternary structure

several polypeptides combined

what structure is this

primary

what structure is this

secondary

what structure is this

tertiary

different types of reaction in a tertiary structure and where they exist

• Hydrophobic interactions exist between non-polar R groups.

• H-bonds exist between R groups or between an R group and water

• Ionic bonds exist between a negatively charged R group and a positively charged R group.

• Disulfide bridge (covalent bond) form between cysteine's R groups, which contain a S atom at the end of the chain.

What is a polyester composed of

dicarboxylic acid and a diol (di-alcohol)

what is a diol acid

di-alcohol, an alcohol with two functional groups (hydroxyl groups)

what is a dicarboxylic acid

a carboxylic acid with two carboxyls

what type of polymerisation occurs if a polymer is formed from an alkene

addition

how can addition polymers can be produced from their monomers

synthesis process initiated by a chemical catalyst which breaks the double bonds in monomers in order to link them together. this develops a long-chain macromolecule

types of polymers produced from addition polymerization

• polyethene (LDPE and HDPE)

• polypropene

• polytetrafluorethene

how can condensation polymers be produced from their monomers

Condensation polymers are produced by two monomers reacting with each other to form bonds and create a polymer chain. water or alcohol is released.

examples of condesation polymers

• polypeptides

• polysaccharides

• polyesters

what is the condensation reaction of 2-amino acids to form polypeptides

In a condensation reaction between two amino acids, the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amine nitrogen of another amino acid, forming a peptide bond and releasing a water molecule. This process is repeated to form polypeptides.

when are polypeptides formed

when amino acid monomers are joined by peptide bonds

what is the condensation reaction of monosaccharides to form disaccharides and polysaccharides

In the condensation reaction of monosaccharides, a hydroxyl group (-OH) from one monosaccharide combines with a hydrogen atom (-H) from another monosaccharide, forming a glycosidic bond. a water molecule is released

what bond is found between disaccharides or polysaccharides

glycosidic bond

when are polysaccharides formed

when many monosaccharides monomers are joined by glycosidic bonds

what do proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and synthetic polymers display

properties including strength, density and biodegradability

polymer vs. metal strength

Polymers are more resistant to chemicals that their metal counterparts. However, the strength to size ratio of polymers is less than metals meaning heavy structures cannot be made by polymers as the structural rigidity is low

density of polymers

composite materials that are up to 10 times lighter (less dense) than typical metals

Biodegradability of polymers

polymers are often not biodegradable and not recyclable

how is the primary structure created

Amino acids are linked in peptides and proteins by an amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another 2-amino acid

how is the secondary structure created

by hydrogen bonds between carbonyl groups and 2-amino groups of DIFFERENT amino acids along the stretches of polypeptide chain

how is the tertiary structure created

by the interactions of R groups (side chains) of amino acids in the different secondary structures present in polypeptide chains

how is the quaternary structure created

Larger proteins are made up of multiple polypeptide chains called ‘sub-units’

what are 2-amino acids (α-amino acids)

amino acides obtained from protein hydrolysis

what is an alpha-helix

hydrogen bonds between the oxygen atom of the carbonyl group from one acid and the hydrogen of the amino group which is four amino acids down the polypeptide chain

what is a beta-pleated sheet

Peptide chains lie side by side held together by hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds form between the carbonyl oxygen of one b sheet and the amino hydrogen atom in the polypeptide chain of another b sheet. Wavy/pleated appearance

what do enzymes provide

an activation energy for the reaction which creates a faster rate of reaction, as more of the particles have the required energy to react

why are enzymes specific

only catalyse one reaction for one specific chemical called a “substrate”

how is an ezymes shape disrupted

mild changes of temperature and pH causing the protein to denature (unravel) back to a single chain with no folds

what do enzymes have that helps make products

an active site which binds the reactant molecules (substrate) and puts them in the correct orientation to react and make product

what is the empirical formula of monosaccharides

CH2O

What are the two functional groups in carbohyrdates

hydroxyl group and carbonyl group

what type of polymers are carbohydrates

polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones

what are monosaccharides

simple sugars and are carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolysed to simpler compounds

how are monosaccharides classified

according to the number of carbon atoms present and according to whether the carbonyl group is present as an aldehyde or as a ketone

what are the two monosaccharides with three carbons

glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone

how the chain numbered in an aldose

from the aldehyde carbon (c=0)

where is the carbonyl group located in a ketose

On the second carbon

difference between alpha and beta glucose

α-glucose has a vertical bond down to the hydroxyl (in the opposite direction of carbon 6 hydroxyl) and β-glucose has an upward diagonal bond to the hydroxyl (in a similar direction to the carbon 6 hydroxyl)

which type of glucose is more stable and why

β-glucose is more stable and less crowded than α-glucose and has a melting point approximately 5 degrees higher due to the hydroxyl position

how are disaccharides produced

a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides. A glycosidic link between the chiral carbon one of one monosaccharide and the hydroxyl group of another monosaccharide is created

what do polysaccharides contain

long chains of monosaccharides linked together though glycosidic bonds

what is starch and structural properties

A polymer of glucose found in plants. It is partially soluble in water and is edible

what are the two different types of polyglucose molecules that starch can be separated into

Amylose and Amylopectin

what does starch contain (type of glucose)

alpha-D-glucose, joined by alpha-1-4-glycosidic links

what is amylose

unbranched glucose polymer with α-1-4-glycosidic links

what is amylopectin

highly branched glucose polymer with α-1-4-glycosidic links and α-1-6-glycosidic links

why is starch soluble in water

• has lots of polar hydroxyl groups and can hydrogen bond with water.

• the loose packing due to the coils and branching allows solvent to hydrogen bond

what is cellulose

Unbranched polysaccharide (linear chains)

what does cellulose contain

β-D-glucose units are linked together by β-1-4-glycosidic links

why does cellulose’s structure give a higher melting point

Extreme linearity of chain allows hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups of adjacent molecule chains

what does high h-bonding in cellulose mean

means there is a high mechanical/tensile strength in its fibres

why is cellulose not soluble

the very close packing of the chain’s limits water’s ability to access and bond with hydroxyl groups

can cellulose be digested by humans

no, because our enzymes do not have the specific active site for β-glucose hydrolysis. Its rigid structure makes it suitable as a structural carbohydrate in trees and the cell wall in plants

another term for triglycerides

lipids

what are lipids

esters made from three carboxylic acids (fatty acids) and glycerol (propan-1,2,3-triol)

another term for the 3 carboxylic acids in lipids

fatty acids

what are triglycerides classified as

fats and oils

structural properties of fats

solids at room temperature, common in animals, high percentage of saturated fatty acids

structural properties of oils

liquids at room temperature, common in plants, contains a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids

what does the term ‘saturated’ infer about a fatty acid

there are single bonds only

what does the term ‘unsaturated’ infer about a fatty acid

there is 1 or more double bond

two types of unsaturated fatty acids

cis and trans

why do trans fatty acids have high boiling points than cis

trans fatty acids have a straight chain and therefore can pack closer together than cis fatty acids can. this increases the IMF between molecules

what does ‘cis’ refer to in fatty acids

‘H’s are on the same side of double bond

what does ‘cis’ refer to in fatty acids

‘H’s are on the opposite sides of double bond

difference in structure between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

saturated fatty acids have single bonds only whereas unsaturated fatty acids have 1 or more double bond

what is saponification

the organic reaction between an acidic ester and a strong base to produce a fatty acid salt

another term for saponification

base hydrolysis

what does amphipathic mean

having both hydrophobic – does not dissolve in water, and hydrophilic – dissolves in water, parts

chemical property of soap

amphipathic

what are the cleaning action of soap

• Soap dissolves in water because the polar hydrophilic head is attracted to the polar water

• Non-polar hydrophobic tail of the soap is not attracted to the water and tries to dissolve in the “like” non-polar substance which is the grease on the clothing.

• Agitation (head attaches to water which creates a pull force towards the water) lifts the grease from the surface.

• Cleaning action continues.

• Completion – small bits of grease float in the water completely surrounded by the embedded soap molecules forming “micelles” with grease trapped in the middle.